4  \  --»-  :^  V 


^f  4- 


FUNDAMENTALS 

OF 

FRENCH   GRAMMAR 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIVE   TEXTS,   EXERCISES, 
AND   VOCABULARIES 


FOR  USE  IN  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 


WILLIAM   B.  SNOW 

Officier  d' Academie 

Head  of  the  Department  of  Romance  Languages 

English  High  School,  Boston,  Mass. 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

1912 


Copyright,  1912, 


HENRY  HOLT  AND   COMPANY 


y  c  -r « 


THE    UNIVERSITY    PRESS,    CAMBRIDGE,    U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

A  quarter-century  of  teaching  has  convinced  the  author 
that  the  value  of  a  text-book  generally  varies  inversely  as 
its  size.  His  original  question  was  therefore  not  what 
could  be  put  into  an  elementary  French  grammar,  but 
what  might  reasonably  be  omitted.  He  had  before  his 
eyes  more  than  one  unhappy  example  of  books  spoiled 
for  the  class-room  by  the  excess  of  their  excellences. 
"Abundant  exercises"  have  in  some  cases  so  multiplied 
that,  with  our  time-limitations,  the  reader,  which  should 
be  the  center  of  our  instruction,  is  crowded  out,  and 
grammar  is  mistress  instead  of  handmaiden.  This  book 
is  planned  to  give  the  help  required  in  connection  with 
reading  or  writing,  and  is  intended  to  furnish  that  help 
as  need  thereof  is  likely  to  be  felt. 

Exercises  and  illustrations  are  believed  to  be  sufficiently 
numerous  to  explain  and  fix  principles,  without  being  too 
extensive  for  careful  study  in  the  time  that  should  be  ap- 
portioned to  the  grammar.  For  each  topic,  not  all  possi- 
ble forms  of  exercises,  but  the  kinds  thought  best  suited 
to  that  topic,  have  been  provided.  The  best  supplemen- 
tary exercises  are  those  based  on  the  text  read  by  each 
class.  Teachers,  however,  who  wish  to  do  intensive  work 
in  connection  with  the  grammar  will  find  a  classified  col- 
lection of  substantial  drill  material  on  pages  147  to  192. 

Arrangement  is  at  first  inductive,  examples  preceding 
rules;  later,  deductive.  A  considerable  portion  of  Chap- 
ters VI  and  VII  should  be  omitted  by  beginners,  but  is 
iii 

250987 


IV  PREFACE 

inserted  to  make  the  book  adequate  for  advanced  work 
in  secondary  schools  or  for  most  classes  in  colleges. 

The  question  of  phonetic  tji^e  is  solved  by  putting  it 
at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  where  those  who  wish  it  can 
find  it  easily,  and  those  who  object  to  it  need  not  look 
at  it. 

An  especial  feature  of  the  book  is  the  presentation  of 
the  verb,  which  the  author  has  tested  for  many  j^ears, 
teaching  by  tenses  instead  of  by  conjugations,  and  giving 
tenses  in  the  order  of  their  importance.  Useful  synoptic 
tables  are  given  on  pages  193  to  201;  but  the  complete 
tables  of  conjugation  and  translation  found  in  many 
books  are  directly  opposed  to  the  author's  belief  that  one 
should  not  do  for  a  pupil  what  the  latter  can  profitablj^ 
do  for  himself;  and  long  experience,  both  with  and  with- 
out complete  paradigms,  has  proved  conclusively  that 
they  are  a  positive  injury  to  the  pupil,  and  that  far  better 
results  are  obtained  when,  from  the  beginning,  the  pupil 
learns  most  forms  as  derived  in  accordance  with  a  few 
simple  rules,  and  then  concentrates  his  attention  on  the 
exceptions. 

Another  conviction,  based  on  both  theory  and  expe- 
rience, is  that  irregular  forms,  being  the  commonest  and 
most  useful  words,  should  be  attacked  early  and  mastered 
while  one  form  is  as  easy  to  memorize  as  another,  before 
an  established  analogy  impels  the  mind  to  reject  such 
forms  as  faites,  vont,  or  tiennent. 

Prepositions  are  given  a  fullness  of  treatment  which  it 
is  hoped  will  be  welcome  in  view  of  the  great  importance 
and  difficulty  of  the  subject.  A  page  or  two  on  word- 
order,  that  prime  essential  in  expressing  or  comprehend- 
ing delicate  shades  of  thought,  may  be  illuminating  to 
some  readers. 


PREFACE  V 

The  author's  obligation  to  several  well-known  grammars 
will  be  apparent  and  is  gratefully  acknowledged.  His 
thanks  are  also  due  to  his  colleagues  Charles  P.  Lebon, 
who  has  made  many  valuable  suggestions  and  corrections, 
Peter  F.  Gartland,  who  has  read  proof,  and  James  E. 
O'Neil,  who  has  assisted  with  the  vocabularies. 

W.  B.  S. 

Boston, 

April  6,  1912. 


Digitized  by  tlie  Internet  Arcliive 

in  2008  witli  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcli  ive.org/details/fundamentalsoffrOOsnowricli 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

The  Parts  of  Speech,  §1 1 

Letters  and  Their  Sounds,  §2 2 

Vowels,  §§  3-11      2 

Syllables,  §§  12-14 5 

Nasal  vowels,  §  15 7 

Consonants,  §  16 8 

Liaison,  §  17 10 

Phonetic  alphabet,  §  18 11 

Chapter  I 

SUBSTANTIVES  AND   THEIR   MOST  FREQUENT 
SUBORDINATES 

Definite  nouns;  masculine  and  feminine,  §§  19-20 13 

Feminine  of  adjectives,  §§  21-23 13 

Special  forms  before  vowels, 

EUsion,  §  24;  ce,  cet,  beau,  bel,  etc.,  §  25 15 

Plurals  of  nouns  and  adjectives,  §§  26-31 16 

Contracted  forms;  pronoun  ce,  §§  29,  30 18 

Possessive  adjectives,  §  32 19 

Indefinite  and  partitive  constructions,  §§  33-37      20 

Chapter  II 

FUNDAMENTAL  VERB-FORMS 

Primitive  tenses;  stem  and  ending,  §§  38-40 23 

Present  indicative  singular,  §  41;  subject  pronouns,  §  42  .    .    .  25 

Present  indicative  plural,  §§  43,  44 26 

Vowel-strengthening,  §§  45,  46 27 

Y  and  i,  §  47;  c  and  g,  cedilla,  §  48 29 

Noteworthy  forms  of  present  indicative,  §  49 30 

vii 


VlU  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Imperative,  §  50 31 

Interrogative  forms,  §§  51-53 33 

Negation,  §  54 34 

Chapter  III 
PRONOUNS 

Personal  pronouns,  §  55 35 

Direct  and  indirect  objects,  §  56 36 

Disjunctive  or  stressed  pronouns,  §  57 37 

Position  of  objective  pronouns,  §  58      37 

Reflexive  pronouns,  §§  59,  60      38 

Y  and  en,  §  61 39 

Invariable  le,  §  62 40 

Two  objective  pronouns,  §§  63-65 41 

Possessive  pronouns,  §  66 43 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  §§  67-71 45 

Relative  pronouns,  §§  72-80 48 

Interrogative  pronouns,  §§  81-83 53 

Indefinites,  §§  84-89 56 

Chapter  IV 

PAST  AND   FUTURE   TENSES   OF   THE   INDICATIVE 

Past  indefinite,  §§  90-92 61 

Imperfect,  §§  93-95 63 

Past  definite,  §§  96,  97 64 

Future,  §§  98-101      68 

Compound  tenses,  §§  102-104 71 

Passive  voice,  §§  105-107 73 

Chapter  V 

VERB-FORMS   OTHER   THAN   THE   INDICATIVE 
AND   IMPERATIVE 

Infinitive,  §§  108,  109 75 

Participles  (gerund),  §§  110-113 76 

Conditional,  §§  114-116 79 

Subjunctive,  §§  117-125 82 


CONTENTS  ix 

Chapter  VI 

MORE  ABOUT   SUBSTANTIVES   AND   THEIR 
SUBORDINATES 

PAGB 

Gender,  §§  126-129 89 

Invariable  forms,  §§  130,  131 93 

Agreement  of  adjectives,  §  132 94 

Comparison  of  adjectives  and  adverbs,  §§  133-135 94 

Use  of  the  articles,  §§  136,  137 96 

Word-order,  §  138 98 

Cardinal  numbers,  §  139 100 

Ordinals,  §  140;  collectives,  §  141;  fractions,  §  142 102 

Time,  §  143;  dates  and  titles,  §  144 104 

Age,  §  145 105 

Dimension,  §  146 106 

Ce  and  U,  §  147 107 

Predicate  le,  §  148;  le  plus,  §  149 108 

En  for  English  possessive  adjective,  §  150 109 

Chapter  VII 
MORE  ABOUT  VERBS 

Inversion,  §§  151,  152 110 

Agreement,  §§  153-155 Ill 

Government,  §  156 112 

Complement,  §§  157-162 113 

Special  uses  of  future,  §§  163,  164 116 

Special  uses  of  conditional,  §§  165-168      116 

Imperative,  §§  169,  170 118 

Difficulties  of  the  subjunctive,  §§  171-175 119 

Infinitive,  §§  176-178 121 

Participles,  §§  179,  180 122 

Impersonal  verbs,  §§  181-186 123 

Chapter  VIII 

UNINFLECTED   PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

Adverbs 

Position,  §  187 125 

Derivation,  §§  188-190;  comparison,  §  191 126 


X  CONTENTS 

PAQB 

Non,  oui,  si,  §§  192-195;  ne,  §§  196-198 127 

The  prefix  au,  §  199;  davftntage,  §  200;  only,  §  201    ...  131 

Prepositions 

A,  §§  202-206 132 

Avant,  devant,  §  207;  avec,  §  208 134 

Chez,  §  209;  dans,  en,  §  210 135 

De,  §§  211-216 136 

Envers,  vers,  §  217 137 

Pour,  §  218;  special  uses  of  prepositions,  §  219 138 

Repetition  of  prepositions,  §  220 139 

Prepositional  phrases,  §  221 140 

Conjunctions 

Conjunctions  requiring  the  subjunctive,  §  222 140 

Ni,  §  223;  quand  and  lorsque,  §  224 141 

Tandis  que,  pendant  que,  §  225;  depuis  que,  puisque,  §  226  141 

Distinction  between  conjunctions  and  prepositions,  §  227  142 

Que,  §§  228,  229 142 

Interjections,  §  230 142 

Comme,  comment,  §  231      143 

Abbreviations,  §  232 143 


TEXTS  AND  EXERCISES 

Selections  from  French  history  (adapted  from  Lavisse) 

I.   Jeanne  d'Arc.     (Articles  and  partitives) 147 

II.   Les  trois  Etats.     (Possessives  and  demonstratives)  150 

III.  Frangois  Premier.      (Interrogatives  and  compara- 

tives)      152 

IV.  Hemi   Quatre.      (Disjunctive  personals  and  rela- 

tives)      154 

V.   Louis  Quatorze.    (Two  objective  personal  pronouns 

—  past  participles) 156 

VI.   Louis  Quinze.     (Future  and  conditional)      ....  159 

VII.   La  Revolution.     (Subjunctive  mode) 162 

VIII.   Napoleon.     (Subjunctives  and  infinitives)    ....  164 

Noiraud 168 

Exercises  based  on  Noiraud 176 


CONTENTS  XI 

PAGE 

La  demiere  Classe 183 

Exercises  based  on  La  demiere  Classe  (especially  for  the 

subjunctive) 188 

Essential  Verb-Forms 193 

Index  to  Irregular  Verbs 198 

Synopsis  of  Inflected  Forms 201 

French-English  Vocabulary 203 

English-French  Vocabulary 240 

Index 263 


FKENCH   GEAMMAE 


INTRODUCTION 

I.— THE   PARTS   OF   SPEECH 

1.     Language,  like  thought,  deals  with  things  and  acts. 
Hence  words  are: 


stantives, 

Nouns 

Les  noms 

(a)  Their  substitutes, 

Pronouns 

Les  pronoms 

(6)  Their  modifiers, 

Adjectives 

Les  adjectifs 

(c)  Their  Hnk-words, 

which  introduce 

them. 

Prepositions 

Les  prepositions 

II.   Act- words,    or   words 

that  predicate. 

Verbs 

Les  verbes 

(o)  Their  modifiers. 

Adverbs 

Les  adverbes 

(6)  Their   link-words. 

which  introduce 

them, 

Conjunctions 

Les  conjonctions 

The  adjectives  a,  an,  and 

the  have  the  special  name 

Articles 

Les  articles 

Certain  cries,  independent 

of  the   sentence  struc- 

ture,  expressing  feeling 

rather  than  thought,  are 

called 

Interjections 

Les  interjections 

^  INTRODUCTION 

Adverbs  are  used  also  to  modify  adjectives  or  other  adverbs. 

Conjunctions  are  used  to  connect  any  two  words  or  word-groups 
that  have  the  same  sjmtax  (construction),  as  such  expressions  always 
imply  two  coordinate  clauses:  John  and  Henry  came  implies  John 
came  and  Henry  came. 

To  know  what  part  of  speech  a  word  is,  ask  what  it 
does,  or  what  its  "function"  is,  in  the  sentence. 


II.— LETTERS   AND   THEIR   SOUNDS 
The  French  names  for  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 


a    a 

h 

ache 

0     0 

u 

u 

b   be 

i 

i 

P   P6 

V 

ve 

c    c6 

J 

ji 

q   ku 

w 

double  v6 

d   de 

k 

ka 

r    crre 

X 

Iks 

e   6(e) 

1 

elle 

s    esse 

y 

i  grec 

f    effe 

m 

emrae 

t    te 

z 

zede 

g   g^ 

n 

enne 

3.  Six  of  these  represent  vowel  sounds,  the  relation  of 
which  to  one  another  and  to  the  nearest  English  sounds 
appears  from  the  following  table,  in  which  letters  at  the 
top  represent  sounds  made  with  the  lower  jaw  up,  hence 
the  mouth  nearly  closed;  the  lower  the  letter,  the  lower 
the  jaw,  hence  the  wider  the  mouth  opening. 

Letters  at  the  left  represent  sounds  articulated  at  the 
front  of  the  mouth;  those  at  the  right  represent  back 
vowels,  i.e.  vowels  made  with  the  highest  part  of  the 
tongue  at  the  back  of  the  mouth. 

The  vowel  triangle  on  the  opposite  page  gives  the 
typical  vowel  sounds  of  French,  with  diagrams  indicating 
lip  outlines,  round  for  back  vowels,  elongated  for  front 
vowels. 


LETTERS  AND  THEIR  SOUNDS 


Front  Vowels  Front-Round  Vowels  Back  Vowels 

'^"     ,      ,        '  Lips  rounded  and  pushed  forward,  "puckered." 

i  (y)  pire  u     pur 

ee     E.  peer      {E.  ee  with  lips  rounded 
as  for  whistling) 
e    bebe  eu    peu  (Lips  close) 

a     E.  baby      ur,  er     E.  further 
e     mene        e     le 
e     E.  men     e     E.  the  boy 
€     E.  there     ur     E.  cur 
e     pere         oe  (eu)    coeur 

(Lips  open)     a 
a     E.  pat      a     papa     a 
a     patte 


ou     pour 

00     E.  poor 

6     cote,  peau 

0     E.  cone 
o     offrir^ 
0     E.  not 
0     E.  north 
o     mort,  Maure 

pate 
E.  jar 


Front    Front-Round 
^i u 


Back 


O 


Oe    oe         o' 
\(eu)      / 


O 


1  Perhaps  the  nearest  English  equivalent  is  the  sound  often 
heard  in  obey  or  wholly,  when  the  o  is  not  given  the  long  close  sound 
of  0  in  holy,  but  is  spoken  short  and  somewhat  open. 


4  INTRODUCTION 

4.  As  there  are  more  sounds  than  letters,  a  sound 
is  sometimes  represented  by  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  letters,  as  eu,  ou,  oeu.  Other  combinations  are 
au  =  eau  =  6,  la  peau;  ai  =  e  or  e,  allai,  allais;  ei  =  e,  la 
reine. 

A  letter  may  be  made  to  represent  different  sounds 
by  writing  over  it  cUacritics  called  accents.  Thus  the 
acute  accent  (accent  aigu)  shows  e  to  be  pronounced 
with  the  mouth  nearly  closed,  as  in  bebe;  the  grave 
accent  (accent  grave)  shows  e  to  l^e  pronounced  with 
the  mouth  rather  widely  open,  as  in  mene,  mere;  the 
circumflex  accent  (accent  circonflexe)  generally  shows  a 
letter  to  be  long,  as  in  pate.  Notice  that  open  and  close 
refer  to  mouth  opening,  while  long  and  short  refer  to  the 
time  the  sound  is  prolonged. 

5.  The  vowels  of  a  group  shade  insensibly  into  one 
another.  Thus  the  e  sounds  shade  from  the  open  e  of 
pere,  through  bete,  mene,  fletrir,  to  the  close  stressed  e 
of  bebe.  Stress  and  lengthening  intensify  the  character 
of  a  vowel,  making  open  vowels  more  open  and  close 
vowels  closer,  e  is  generally  long  and  open,  while  a,  i,  6, 
and  eu  are  generally  long  and  close. 

The  lips  are  rounded  or  "puckered"  for  the  back  and 
mid-vowels,  except  a,  and  are  pushed  farther  and  farther 
forward  as  the  mouth  closes;  in  the  front  vowels,  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  are  drawn  back  more  and  more  as 
the  mouth  closes. 

6.  The  muscles  are  tenser  and  their  action  prompter 
and  more  vigorous  for  French  than  for  English  vowels; 
especially  the  close  vowels,  i,  u,  ou,  and  e,  should  have 
this  muscle-tension,  or  "narrouiiess." 


LETTERS  AND   THEIR  SOUNDS  5 

7.  English  long  vowels  often  end  in  a  glide  or  "vanish " 
caused  by  closing  the  mouth  while  the  sound  continues. 
Thus  English  a  ends  in  an  ee  sound,  and  English  o  in  an 
00  sound.  In  French,  such  a  glide  is  bad,  and  the  utmost 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  any  change  in  quality  during 
the  continuance  of  a  vowel. 

8.  English  has  no  sound  like  that  of  French  u.  This 
sound  has  the  lip  position  of  French  ou,  and  the  tongue 
and  teeth  in  position  for  pronouncing  French  i.  To  make 
it,  put  the  lips  into  the  French  ou  position  (close,  as  if 
for  whistling)  and  without  moving  them  try  to  pronounce 
French  i. 

9.  An  e  having  no  written  accent  and  coming  at  the 
end  of  a  syllable  is  called  e  mute  (e  muet).  It  usually 
has  the  obscure  sound  given  in  rapid  speech  to  the  vowel 
of  English  the,  as  the  boy,  and  often  seems  to  vanish  en- 
tirely, its  syllable  sounding  like  a  part  of  the  preceding 
syllable.    A  preceding  consonant  has  cUstinct  utterance. 

10.  y  between  two  vowels  is  pronounced  like  French 
i-i,  paya  being  pronounced  pai-ia  =  pe-ia. 

11.  oi  is  a  diphthong  and  is  pronounced  like  French 
oua ;  moi  is  pronounced  moua ;  toi,  toua ;  the  stress  coming 
on  the  a,  and  the  ou  short  and  semi-consonant,  like  a  w. 
English  mwah,  twah,  with  short  vowels. 

13.  Whenever  possible,  a  syllable  -vvill  begin  with  a 
single  consonant  or  with  a  consonant  followed  by  an  h,  1, 
n,  or  r  with  which  the  consonant  blends  in  pronuncia- 
tion: a-ni-mal,  mour-rai,  per-du,  res-te,  ta-bleau,  a-chat, 
pro-phete,  a-gre-able,  a-gneau,  Sei-gneiu:. 


6  INTRODUCTION 

In  certain  compound  words,  consonant  groups  occur 
that  contain  an  s  followed  by  one  or  more  consonants. 
Usage  is  not  uniform  in  dividing  these  words.  We  find 
con-spirer  and  cons-pirer,  in-stniction  and  ins-tniction, 
de-scription  and  des-cription,  ob-scurcir  and  obs-curcir, 
in-spirer  and  trans-pirer,  abs-tenir  and  ob-stine,  circon- 
spect  and  circons-pection,  trans-fuge  and  atmo-sphere. 
Some  printers  follow  the  etymology,  others  the  sound  of 
the  word.  In  writing,  the  s  seems  to  go  with  the  preced- 
ing syllable  in  a  majority  of  cases,  but  in  pronouncing  it 
will  be  spoken  with  the  syllable  following. 

X  is  always  written  with  the  preceding  vowel,  ex-act; 
Ih  is  divided  in  writing,  mal-heur,  but  blended  in  speak- 
ing, pronounce  ma-leur.  The  dieresis  (trema)  indicates 
that  its  vowel  begins  a  new  syllable,  hair,  naif;  or, 
if  used  over  mute  e,  that  a  preceding  u  has  its  proper 
sound,  aigue,  ambigue,  as  distinguished  from  intrigue, 
figue,  etc. 

13.  At  the  end  of  a  syllable  a  consonant  or  group  of 
consonants,  except  c,  f,  1,  and  r,  is  generally  silent,  pied, 
trop,  vous,  dit,  prix,  pends,  lac,  bref,  mil,  fer. 

14.  French  syllables  must  be  spoken  with  smooth, 
even  stress,  the  only  ones  slurred  and  indistinct  being 
those  whose  vowel  is  mute  e.  The  last  pronounced  sylla- 
ble of  a  word-group  generally  has  increased  stress,  and  is 
often  lengthened. 

EXERCISE  I 

Let  the  pupil  pronounce  after  the  teacher: 

Car,  part;  cave,  lave,  alpe,  barbe,  dalle,  nappe,  carafe,  rapace. 
Poire,  boire,  noir,  soir,  noise,  toise,  boive,  boite,  soif,  poil,  voile, 
froide,  moine,  foi,  loi,  roi,  toi,  moi,  ^moi. 


LETTERS  AND   THEIR  SOUNDS  7 

Mere,  pere,  frere,  amer,  ver,  claire,  taire;  bete,  tete,  baisse, 
laisse,  caisse,  mele,  chaine,  seize,  pese,  bale,  claie,  taie,  vrai; 
feve,  greve,  neige;  belle,  mene,  cede,  peine,  aime;  leste,  celte, 
bee,  dette,  bref,  messe,  cesse. 

Alle,  aUer,  aUez,  allai,  cede,  gai,  aime,  ble,  frappe,  bebe. 

Liste,  dite,  pipe,  cycle,  file,  mille,  figue,  ligue,  tigre;  ami,  fini, 
grive,  cire,  sire,  dire,  grise,  mise,  \'ise,  lie,  mie,  manie. 

Pate,  tasse,  espace,  pale,  fable,  sable,  flanmie,  base,  vase, 
blame,  mois,  le  bois,  poids,  trois,  noix,  poix. 

Or,  dore,  Maure,  corde,  force,  golfe,  froc,  hotte,  dot,  cotte, 
robe,  notre,  colle,  Paul,  bonne,  album,  mauvais,  restaurant. 

Cote,  ote,  notre,  saute,  aune,  baume,  zone,  atome,  fauve, 
dome,  fosse,  grosse,  mauve,  sauve,  close,  dose,  rose,  cause,  pause, 
6tau,  eau,  peau,  seau,  beau,  aux,  baux. 

Courte,  lourde,  bouc,  broute,  doute,  coupe,  touffe,  mousse, 
douce,  pousse,  boule,  coule,  coude,  couve,  prouve,  cou,  fou, 
trou;  boue,  loue,  clone,  amour,  four,  tour,  bourre,  blouse,  douze. 

Coeur,  beurre,  heure,  soeur,  peur,  fleur;  heurte,  meurtre, 
peuple,  neuf,  veuf,  oeuf,  boeuf,  aveugle. 

Bleu,  feu,  lieu,  voeu,  creuse,  Meuse,  berceuse,  meute,  neutre, 
bleus,  voeux,  veux,  veut,  affreux,  deux,  creux,  oeufs,  bceufs,  feux. 

Buste,  juste,  culte,  pulpe,  turc,  urne,  due,  nuque,  brut,  sucre, 
hutte,  butte,  dupe,  russe,  suce,  nul,  rude,  fugue,  tube,  dune, 
lune,  fume;  nu,  cru,  rue,  nue,  use,  buse,  amuse,  ruse,  dure,  pure, 
mtire,  sure. 

15.  If,  while  pronouncing  the  open  vowels,  a,  o,  e,  ce, 
we  allow  part  of  the  air  from  the  lungs  to  pass  out  by  the 
nose,  we  get  four  sounds  called  nasal  vowels.  Nasal 
vowels  are  indicated  by  an  n  or  m,  not  doubled,  follomng 
a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable,  as,  content,  dans,  hum-ble; 
but  there  is  no  nasal  vowel  in  a-ni-mal,  in-no-ver.  The 
m  or  n  is  itself  never  to  be  pronounced,  the  sound  of  the 
vowel  stopping  before  the  mouth  closes.  The  tilde,  as 
in  5;  O;  is  often  used  to  show  that  the  vowel  under  it  is 


8  INTRODUCTION 

to  be  made  nasal.  Compounds  of  en,  also  ennui  and  its 
derivatives,  have  the  nasal  vowel  of  French  en  even 
though  m  or  n  is  double,  as  emmener,  ennoblir,  ennui. 

Nasal  a  (a)  is  written  am,  an,  em,  en.  It  is  a  little  less 
open  than  a,  approaching  o :  champ,  an,  sembler,  tenter. 

Nasal  0  (3)  is  written  cm,  on :  nom,  ton. 

Nasal  CE  (de)  is  written  um,  un :  parfum,  lundi. 

Nasal  e  (g)  is  written  im,  in,  ym,  yn:  simple,  fin, 
nymphe.  It  is  also  written  en  after  i,  y,  or  e,  in  words 
like  bien,  mien,  rien,  vient,  tiendrai,  Troyen,  Europeen, 
lyceen;  likewise  in  a  few  foreign  words,  as  examen,  Ben- 
jamin. 

To  learn  to  make  the  nasal  vowels  well,  with  no  trace 
of  a  consonant  sound  at  the  end,  practise  prolonging  them 
as  long  as  the  breath  holds  out,  keeping  the  sound  steady, 
and  stopping  it  before  the  mouth  begins  to  close. 

16.  Accurate  pronunciation  of  the  vowels  is  the  first 
essential  for  speaking  French.  Most  of  the  consonants 
are  so  nearly  like  the  English  sounds  represented  by  the 
same  characters,  that  the  substitution  of  the  English 
sounds  does  not  make  what  we  say  unintelligible  to  a 
Frenchman.  The  following  points,  however,  require 
especial  attention. 

Enunciation  must  be  vigorous,  muscle-action  energetic, 
lips  and  tongue  active,  sounds  clear-cut  and  definite. 

Linguo-dentals,  that  is,  tongue-teeth  sounds,  have  the 
tip  of  the  tongue  farther  forward  than  in  English.  For  t, 
d,  I,  n,  in  English,  the  tongue-tip  usually  touches  the 
palate;  in  French  it  should  press  against  the  back  of  the 
upper  teeth. 

In  many  words,  il  or  ill  has  a  sound  resembling  that 
of  English  y.     This  is  called  liquid  I  (1  mouillee).     Pro- 


LETTERS  AND  THEIR  SOUNDS  9 

nounce  in  this  way  la  fiUe,  la  feuille,  la  paille,  la  muraille, 
une  abeille,  une  bouteille,  une  corbeille,  meilleur,  vieille, 
gentille,  une  aiguille,  une  coquille,  une  cuiller,  juillet, 
Castille,  un  ceil,  le  seuil,  le  travail,  un  fauteuil,  une  gre- 
nouille,  je  chatouille. 

A  sound  called  liquid  n  (n  mouillee)  is  written  gn. 
It  is  similar  to  7ii  or  ny  in  English  words  like  onion,  ban- 
yan, but  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is  on  the  bottom  of  the 
mouth  against  the  lower  teeth.  Pronounce  in  this  way 
digne,  ignorant,  magnifique,  une  ligne,  Agnes,  ignoble, 
un  rognon,  un  compagnon,  une  compagne,  la  campagne, 
I'Allemagne,  je  soigne,  je  regne,  je  peigne,  etc.      „ 

b  sounds  like  p  before  s  or  t,  as,  absurde,  I'abstinence, 
j 'observe,  j'obtiens,  etc. 

c  and  g  before  front  vowels  (e,  i,  y)  have  the  "soft" 
sounds  like  s  in  case  and  s  in  measure,  respectively;  before 
back  vowels  (a,  o,  u)  they  sound  respectively  hke  k  in 
kick  and  g  in  go.  The  cedilla  is  written  under  a  c  which 
is  to  have  the  soft  sound  before  a,  o,  or  u,  as,  plaf  ant,  nous 
forfons,  il  re^ut. 

ch  is  similar  to  English  sh  in  show,  but  the  lips  protrude 
more  and  the  sound  is  less  explosive.  Pronounce  Charles 
chante  une  chanson  en  cherchant  son  capuchon. 

ch  in  a  few  words  of  Greek  origin  sounds  like  k,  as 
Christ,  chaos. 

j,  always,  and  g,  before  a  front  vowel  (e,  i,  y),  sound 
like  s  in  measure  or  z  in  azure,  but  the  lips  protrude  more 
than  in  English.  Pronounce  je  juge  que  le  jeune  Georges 
joue  avec  la  jolie  Jeanne. 

h  is  not  sounded,  but  sometimes  keeps  words  from  run- 
ning together  in  pronunciation.  It  is  then  called  as- 
pirate and  is  treated  as  a  consonant,  as  in  la  hache,  la 
haine,  les  halles,  la  harpe,  des  haricots,  du  heros,  la 


10  INTRODUCTION 

honte,  ce  homard,  ce  hibou,  de  grands  hetres,  Jean  est 
en  haut. 

qu  sounds  like  k:  qui,  que;  verj-  rarely  like  kou,  as  in 
equateur,  etc. 

r,  when  pronounced,  must  either  be  uvular  or  clearly 
trilled  with  tongue-tip  well  forward. 

s  generally  sounds  as  in  say,  but  when  between  two 
vowels  it  has  the  sound  of  2  in  zone.  Pronounce  c'est 
six  sous,  ces  six  saucissons-ci ;  Louise  a  plusieurs  roses 
qu'elle  a  mises  dans  un  vase. 

ti  has  the  sound  of  si  in  many  words  where  correspond- 
ing English  words  usually  have  the  sound  of  sh  or  s,  as, 
essentiel,  ambitieux,  un  petiole,  ime  condition,  la  nation, 
l)gyptien,  le  Titien,  une  portion,  TaristGcratie,  la  diploma- 
tie,  I'inertie,  je  balbutie,  etc. 

X  is  generally  pronounced  like  ks:  fixer,  luxe;  but 
the  initial  syllable  ex  preceding  a  vowel  sounds  like  egz: 
exemple,  exister.  In  soixante,  Bruxelles,  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
etc.,  x  sounds  like  ss;  and  in  deuxieme,  dixieme,  etc.,  it 
sounds  like  z. 

17.  Words  that  belong  closely  together  in  sense  are 
often  run  together  in  pronunciation  and  sound  like  a 
single  word.  A  final  consonant  is  then  pronounced  with 
an  initial  vowel  in  the  next  word  of  the  group.  This 
is  called  liaison,  "linking,"  as  in  des  amis,  cet  animal. 
In  liaison  the  sonants  (voiced  letters)  d  and  g  become 
surds  (unvoiced)  and  sound  like  t  and  k,  respectively, 
grand  arbre,  sang  impur;  while  the  surds  f  and  x  become 
sonant,  and  sound  respectively  like  v  and  z,  neuf  ans,  dix 
eleves.  When  final  n  of  a  nasal  vowel  is  carried  over,  the 
vowel  loses  its  nasality  wholly  or  in  part,  men  ami.  Un- 
less aspirate,  initial  h  does  not  prevent  liaison. 


LETTERS  AND   THEIR  SOUNDS  11 

For  further  information  about  pronouncing  French,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  some  special  book  on  pronunciation,  among  the  best  being : 
An  Introduction  to  the  Pronunciation  of  French,  by  PhiUp  Hudson 
Churchman,  to  be  had  at.  the  Harvard  Cooperative,  Cambridge, 
Mass. ;  Precis  de  Prononciation  Frangaisc,  by  Rousselot  and  Laclotte, 
pubUshed  in  Paris  by  H.  Welter;  A  Primer  of  French  Pronunciation, 
by  John  E.  Matzke,  New  York,  Henry  Holt  and  Company. 

EXERCISE  n 

Pronounce  after  the  teacher: 

En,  dans,  quand,  sans,  tant,  cent,  Caen,  Jean,  une  dent,  le 
temple,  le  camp,  un  franc,  un  membre,  la  patience,  la  science, 
une  lampe,  je  rends,  je  vends,  je  tente,  etc. 

Hein,  \dn,  vain,  americain,  simple,  Reims,  juin,  loin,  la  faim, 
le  chien,  la  main,  le  pain,  I'index,  le  lin,  le  foin,  le  pin,  je  tiens, 
je  pince,  je  vins,  etc. 

Un  emprunt,  un  lundi,  chacun,  quelqu'un,  brun,  humble, 
j'emprunte,  etc. 

On,  bon,  ton,  men,  le  lion,  sent,  font,  plomb,  Tombre,  la  bonte, 
le  jonc,  un  pigeon,  je  romps,  je  compte,  je  fends,  je  conte,  etc. 

18.  In  representing  sounds  by  printed  characters,  it 
is  unfortunate  that  ordinary  alphabets  do  not  always  use 
the  same  character  for  a  given  sound,  nor  does  a  given 
character  always  represent  the  same  sound.  This  causes 
confusion,  and  in  order  to  show  more  precisely  and  cer- 
tainly how  words  are  pronounced,  phonetic  alphabets  have 
been  devised  in  which  each  character  has  always  approx- 
imately the  same  sound.  The  characters  of  one  such 
alphabet,  with  the  sound  of  each  character,  are  shown  in 
the  following  table.  This  alphabet  will  be  used  to  show 
the  pronunciation  of  words  and  word-groups  that  might 
otherwise  be  doubtful,  and  students  who  learn  to  use  it 
will  find  it  helpful  both  in  learning  French  and  in  other 
language  work. 


12  INTRODUCTION 

ALPHABET  OF  THE 
INTERNATIONAL  PHONETIC  ASSOCIATION 

(Association  Phonetique  Internationale) 

Each  sign  has  the  value  of  the  italicized  letter  or  letters  in  the  word  next  to  which 
it  stands. 

a  patte  I  la  0  \oeu 

a  pote  m  ma  oe  leur 

b  bebe  n  nonne  a  dans 

k  col  (quand)  0  Y)eati  (pot)  §  vm 

d  dans  0  poche  3  hon 

e  alle  p  pas  de  ^in 

e  vets  r  rat  j  ijcnx 

9  me  s  ceux  (seul)  w  oui 

i  /ou  t  tGte  q  Iwi 

g  ^ater  y  vxi  S  chnt 

h  /iardi  v  tous  ji  digne 

i  si  z  2ebre  (rose)  :  sign  of  length 

3  git  (jour)  u  voiis 


CHAPTER    I 

SUBSTANTIVES  AND  THEIR  MOST  FREQUENT 
SUBORDINATES 

19.  Definite  Nouns  —  Masculine  and  Feminine.  Sub- 
stantives that  indicate  a  particular  object  as  distinguished 
from  others  of  the  same  class  are  called  definite.  When 
not  otherwise  determined,  each  such  substantive  is  pre- 
ceded by  the  definite  article  (English  the). 

Le  crayon  est  petit.  La  plume  est  petite. 

The      pencil  is       small  The         pen  small 

Le   monsieur    est   grand,    il     La    dame    est    grande,    elle 

gentleman  tall  he  lady  she 

n'est  pas  petit.  n'est  pas  petite. 

is  not 

Le   petit   garfon    est   joli,  //     La  petite  fille  est  jolie,  e//e 

boy  pretty  girl 

n'est  pas  laid.  n'est  pas  laide. 

homely 

Some  definite  nouns  are  preceded  l)y  le.  These  nouns 
are  called  masculine,  as,  le  crayon,  le  monsieur. 

Other  definite  nouns  are  preceded  by  la.  These  nouns 
are  called  feminine,  as,  la  plume,  la  dame. 

20.  II  is  the  substitute  for  a  masculine  singular  noun 
used  as  subject  of  a  verb. 

Elle  is  the  substitute  for  a  feminine  singular  noun  used 
as  subject  of  a  verb. 

21.  An  adjective  that  modifies  a  feminine  singular 
noun  must  generally  end  in  e.  Usually  this  e  is  added  to 
the  masculine  singular,  which  is  the  only  form  commonly 
given  in  vocaVmlaries. 

Pronounce:  b  krejS  8  pgti.    la  plym  e  patit.    la  masjo  e  gra,  11  ne 
pa  pati.    la  dam  e  gruid,  el  ne  pa  patit.    b  pati  garso  e  3oli,  il  ne  pa 
le.    la  patit  fij  e  3oli,  el  ne  pa  led. 
13 


14       SUBSTANTIVES  AND  THEIR  SUBORDINATES 

EXERCISE  m 

Write  the  feminine  singular  of 

noir,  gris,  bleu,  vert,  brun,  ouvert,  ferm^,  poll,  impoli,  rond, 
carre,  gai,  fort,  mechant. 

Learn  from  the  vocabulary  the  sound  and  meaning  of 
new  words. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  suitable  adjectives  and  pronouns: 

Henri  est et .  Marie  est et . 

Le  livre  est , n'est  pas . 

La  plume  est ,  n'est  pas . 

Write  similar  sentences  with  the  following  nouns : 
le  crayon,  la  salle,  le  bureau,  le  papier,  le  pupitre,  la  chaise, 
le  canif,  la  porte,  la  fenetre,  le  tableau. 

22,  Paul  est  jeune.  Marie  est  jeune. 

If  a  masculine  singular  adjective  ends  in  e,  its  feminine 
is  the  same  as  the  masculine. 

23.  Le  melon  est  gros.  La  pomme  est  grosse. 
Le  papier  est  blanc.  La  craie  est  blanc/ie. 
Louis  est  heureux.  Louise  est  heureuse. 
Le  chemin  est  long.  La  rue  est  longue. 
Le  pantalon  est  neuf.  La  veste  est  neuue. 

Many  adjectives  double  or  modify  the  final  consonant 
before  adding  e  to  form  the  feminine. 

EXERCISE  IV 

Write  the  feminine, 
(a)  Doubling  the  final  consonant  of 

cruel,  tel,  quel,  pareil,  vermeil,  gentil,  nul;  bon,  ancien,  Chre- 
tien; has,  gras,  las,  gros,  ^pais,  net,  sot. 

Pronounce:  pol  e  seen,    mari  e  3CEn. 

la  mal5  e  gro.  la  pom  e  gro:s.  la  papje  e  bla.  la  kre  e  blat^.  Iwi 
£t  aT0.  Iwiiz  et  cer0:z.  la  Same  e  15.  la  ry  e  loig.  la  patalo  e  ncef. 
la  vest  e  noe:v. 


SPECIAL   FORMS   BEFORE    .  ■  n'.  i  .  -  i5 

(6)  Softening  f  to  v  in 

actif,  attentif,  vif,  neuf . 

(c)  Changing  x  to  s  in 

heureux,  envieux,  honteux,  joyeux,  genereux,  paresseux,  cu- 
rieux,  dangereux,  glorieux,  odieux,  jaloux. 

AVhat  final  consonants  sometimes  double?  How  does 
X  change?     f  ? 

SPECIAL   FORMS   BEFORE   VOWELS 

34.  L'arbre  est  haut.  L'encre  est  noire.  L'oiseau  est 
petit.     L'eau  nest  pas  claire. 

Before  a  vowel  sound,  monosyllables  ending  in  mute  e, 
also  la,  cut  out  the  final  vowel  and  replace  it  by  an  apos- 
trophe. This  is  called  elision,  si,  if,  elides  i  before  il  or 
ils  (s'il,  s'Us);  and  some  compounds  of  que  show  elision 
with  particular  words  as  quelqu'un,  lorsqu'elle. 

25.  Ce  fruit  est  une  ponune;  cet  arbre  est  un  pommier; 
cette  pomme  est  rouge. 

Quel  beau  dahlia !     Quel  bel  ceillet !     Quelle  belle  rose ! 

Five  common  adjectives  have  two  forms  of  the  mascu- 
line singular,  one  ending  in  a  vowel,  for  use  before  a  con- 
sonant, and  an  older  form,  ending  in  a  consonant,  still 
used  before  a  vowel;  the  principle  being  that  a  succession 
of  vowel  sounds  (called  hiatus)  is  unpleasant.  The  fem- 
inine comes  from  the  second  form,  and  doubles  the  final 
consonant.  Write  the  feminine  of  these  adjectives,  which 
are:  ce,  cet;  beau,  bel;  nouveau,  nouvel;  fou,  fol;  mou,  mol. 

Pronounce:  1  arbr  e  o.    1  a:kr  e  nwa:r.    1  wazo  e  pati.    1  o  ne  pa  kleir. 
S9  frui  et  yn  pom;  set  arbr  et  de  pomje;  set  pom  e  ruis.     kel  bo 
dalja!    kelbela'je!    kelbelroiz! 


16      SUBSTANTIVES  AND   THEIR  SUBORDINATES 

Ce  vieux  livre;  ce  Diej/arbre;  cette  vieille  dame. 
Vieux  usually  becomes  vieil  before  a  vowel.     The  femi- 
nine is  vieille. 

EXERCISE  V 

Fill  blanks  with  adjectives  used  in  same  sentence: 

Le  petit  Henri  est  bon,  studieux,  et  attentif ;  la Henrietta 

est , ,  et . 

Le  long  mur  blanc  est  bas  et  epais;  la muraille est 

Paul  est  jeune,  sage,  \\i,  fort,  et  heureux;  Marie  est , , 

Before  each  noun  in  the  next  line,  write  each  of  the  five 
adjectives  given  after  the  nouns: 

Jardin,  etoile,  animal,  maison,  fontaine.  Ce,  quel,  beau,  nou- 
veau,  vieux. 

PLURALS 

36.  Le  jardin  est  grand,  il  n'est  pas  petit;  les  jardins  sont 
grands,  ils  ne  sont  pas  petits. 

La  fenetre  est  ouverte,  elle  n'est  pas  fermee;  les  fenetres 
sont  ouvertes,  elles  ne  sont  pas  fermees. 

Most  nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjectives  form  their  plural 
by  adding  s  to  the  singular.  Every  pronoun  or  adjective 
that  relates  to  a  plural  noun  must  itself  be  plural  in  form. 

27.     Les  is  the  plural  of  la  and  of  1',  as  well  as  of  le. 

Pro7iounce:  sa  vjo  li:vr;  S9  vjej  arbr;  set  vjej  dam. 

h  pati  ari  e  bo,  stydjo,  e  atatif;  la  patit  ariet  e  bon,  stydjoiz,  e 
atatiiv.  la  15  my:r  bla  8  baz  e  epe;  la  lo:g  myraij  bla:5  e  bas  e  epes. 
pol  e  siT^n,  sa:3,  vif,  foir,  e  cere;  mari  e  3oen,  sa:3,  vi:v,  fort,  e  oeroiz. 

la  3ard8  e  gra,  il  ne  pa  poti;  le  sarde  so  gra,  il  na  so  pa  pati.  la 
faneitr  et  uvert,  el  ne  pa  ferine;  le  faneitr  sot  uvert,  el  na  s5  pa  ferme. 


PLURALS  17 

EXERCISE  VI 

Make  the  following  sentences  plural : 

Le  jeune  gargon  est  actif,  il  n'est  pas  sot. 
Le  petit  livre  est  ferme,  il  n'est  pas  ouvert. 
Le  joli  mouchoir  est  blanc,  il  n'est  pas  noir. 
L'arbre  vert  est  grand,  il  n'est  pas  petit. 

Substitute  fille  for  gargon,  porte  for  livre,  robe  for  mou- 
choir, maison  for  arbre,  and  rewrite  the  sentences  in  both 
singular  and  plural  forms. 

28.  Le  Frangais  est  courtois  mais  impetueux.  Les  Fran- 
gais  sont  courtois  mais  impetueux. 

Le  nouveau  cheval  est  beau.  Les  nouceaux  chevaux  sont 
beaux. 

Nouns  and  adjectives  ending  in  s,  x,  or  z  remain  un- 
changed in  the  plural. 

Nouns  ending  in  au  or  eu,  and  adjectives  ending  in  au 
(also  hebreu),  add  x  instead  of  s  to  form  the  plural. 

Most  nouns  and  many  adjectives  ending  in  al  change  1 
to  u  and  then  add  x  to  form  the  plural.  A  few  nouns  end- 
ing in  ail  have  a  similar  plural  in  aux,  as  travail,  travaux. 
Learn:  un  oeil,  an  eye,  plural,  des  yeux;  le  del,  sky,  heaven, 
plural,  les  cieux. 

EXERCISE  VII 

Write  the  plural  of 

Loyal,  doux,  faux,  legal,  egal,  gris,  brutal,  special. 

Le  cardinal,  le  chateau,  le  bras,  le  nez,  ce  jeu,  la  voix. 

Le  brave  general,  ce  vieux  bateau,  I'oeil  ferm6,  ce  beau  travail, 
le  fils  paresseux,  ce  gateau  frais. 

Pro7wunce:  la  sa-n  garso  et  aktif,  il  ne  pa  so.  h  pati  Ii:vr  8  ferme, 
il  ne  paz  uveir.  la  soli  mu^Jwair  e  bla,  il  ne  pa  nwa:r.  1  arbr  veir  e 
gra,  il  ns  pa  pati.  la  5ffin  fi:j  et  aktiiv,  el  ne  pa  sot.  la  patit  port 
e  ferme,  el  ne  paz  uvert.  la  soli  rob  e  blaij,  el  ne  pa  nwair.  la  mezo 
vert  8  gru:d,  el  ne  pa  patit. 

la  frase  e  kurtwa  mez  epetqo.  le  frase  s5  kurtwa  mez  epetiio.  la 
nuvo  Saval  e  bo.    le  nuvo  ^avo  so  bo. 


18      SUBSTANTIVES   AND   THEIR   SUBORDINATES 

CONTRACTED    FORMS.     THE    PRONOUN    CE 

39.  Ce  livre  est  (belongs)  au  professeur.  Ces  livres  sont 
aux  professeurs. 

Cest  le  livre  du  professeur.  Ce  sont  les  livres  des  pro- 
fesseurs. 

With  le  or  les,  forms  of  the  definite  article,  a  preposi- 
tion a  or  de  blends  into  a  single  word,  the  1  of  the  article 
changing  to  u  or  disappearing,  a  and  le  become  au;  a  and 
les  give  aux;  de  and  le  become  du;  de  and  les  give  des. 

30.  Notice  that  the  adjective  ce  has  a  plural  ces,  but 
the  pronoun  ce  remains  unchanged  in  the  plural. 


EXERCISE  VIII 

From  the  following  ten  nouns  make  forty  combinations, 
by  using  both  singular  and  plural  and  prefixing  to  each 
first  a  and  then  de,  e.g.  le  livre,  au  livre,  du  livre,  aux 
livres,  des  livres. 

le  general,  la  femme,  roncle,  la  tante,  le  frere,  Tanimal,  la 
vache,  le  cheval,  I'ami,  le  crayon. 

31.  Ces  beaux  hommes  sont /ou5.  Ces  belles  dames  sont 
folks. 

The  plural  of  the  adjective  ce  is  ces  for  both  genders. 
The  other  adjectives  with  double  forms  in  the  masculine 
singular  have  in  the  masculine  plural  beaux,  nouveaux, 
fous,  mous,  vieux;  the  feminine  plural  coming  regularly 
from  the  feminine  singular  by  adding  s. 

Pronounce:  sa  li:vr  et  o  profesoeir.    se  li:vr  s5t  o  profesoe:r.    se  h 
Ii:vr  dy  profesoe:r.    sa  s5  le  li:vr  de  profesceir. 
se  boz  om  s5  fu.    se  bel  dam  s3  fol. 


POSSESSIVE  ADJECTIVES  19 

POSSESSIVE    ADJECTIVES 

33.    Voila  mon  pere,  ma  mere,  mes  freres,  et  mes  soeursl 
Voici  notre  oncle,  notre  tante,  nos  cousins,  et  nos  cousines! 
Possessive  adjectives  are  peculiar  in  form. 


Singular 

Plural 

Vlasculine,  and  Feminine 

Feminine  before  a 

For  Both 

before  a  Vowel  Sound. 

Consonant  Sound. 

Genders. 

mon 

ma 

mes 

ton 

ta 

tes 

son 

sa 

ses 

notre 

nos 

votre 

vos 

leur 

leurs 

EXERCISE  IX 

(a)  Before  each  of  the  folloudng  nouns  write  six  pos- 
sessive adjectives: 

cousin,  cousine;  ami,  amie;  crayon,  plume;  jardin,  maison; 
oncle,  orange. 

(6)  Make  the  nouns  plural,  and  then  write  before  each 
six  possessive  adjectives. 

(c)  Put  the  following  sentences  into  the  plural: 
Ce  fameux  general  est  fort  et  heureux. 
Ce  bel  animal  blanc  est  bon  et  doux  (feminine,  douce). 
Son  pauvre  oncle  est  faible,  vieux,  et  boiteux. 
Notre  ami  est  brave,  loyal,  et  genereux. 

Pronounce:  vwala  m5  pe:r,  ma  meir,  me  frs:r,  e  me  soe:r!  vwasi 
notr  5:kl,  notr  ta:t,  no  kuze,  e  no  kuzi:n! 

mo     ma     me,  notr     no. 

to      ta       te,  votr     vo. 

s5      sa       se,  loeir      lce:r. 

sa  fame  general  e  fo:r  e  cere;  set  famoiz  fam  e  fort  e  oeroiz;  se 
fame  genero  so  fo:rz  e  oero;  se  famoiz  fam  so  fortz  e  ceroiz.  so  bel 
animal  bla[k]  e  bo  e  du;  set  bel  Se:vr  bla:^  e  bon  e  du:s.  s5  po:vr 
oikl  e  fe:bl,  vJ0,  e  bwato;  sa  po:vr  ta:t  e  fe:bl,  vje:j,  e  bwat0!z.  notr 
ami  e  bra:v,  Iwajal,  e  senero;  notr  ami  e  braiv,  Iwajal,  e  generoiz. 


20      SUBSTANTIVES  AND  THEIR  SUBORDINATES 

Substitute  for  general,  femme;  for  animal,  chevre;  for 
oncle,  tante;  for  ami,  amie;  and  write  the  sentences  in 
both  singular  and  plural. 

INDEFINITE   AND    PARTITIVE    CONSTRUCTIONS 

33.  Voila  un  livre,  une  plume,  et  des  crayons;  est-ce  le 
livre,  la  plume,  et  les  crayons  que  vous  cherchez?  There  is  a 
book,  a  pen,  and  some  -pencils;  are  they  the  hook,  the  pen,  and 
the  pencils  which  you  are  seekingf 

Sur  la  table  il  y  a  Ju  papier,  de  la  craie,  de  /'encre,  des 
regies,  de  bons  crayons,  et  beaucoup  de  plumes,  mais  il  n'y 
a  pas  de  livres.  On  the  table  there  are  paper,  chalk,  ink,  riders, 
good  pencils,  and  many  pens,  but  there  are  no  books. 

Besides  definite  nouns,  we  have  indefinite  nouns  and 
partitive  nouns. 

34.  Indefinite  nouns  apply  to  any  one  of  a  class  of 
objects,  as  distinguished  from  definite  nouns,  which  apply 
to  a  particular  one  of  those  objects.  Indefinite  nouns  are 
commonly  preceded  in  English  by  a  {an),  and  in  French 
by  un  (masculine)  or  ime  (feminine).  As  the  plural  of 
the  indefinite  article,  we  often  use  some  in  English,  and 
regularly  have  des  in  French. 

35.  Partitive  nouns  express  an  undefined  number  or 
quantity  of  the  objects  or  substance  specified,  and  are 
commonly  preceded  in  English  by  some,  and  in  French  by 
words  that  literally  mean  of  the,  as  du  courage,  de  la 
patience,  des  enfants. 

Nous  avons  achete  (quelques-uns)   des   livres  (qui  existent). 

We  have         bought  some  (of  the)     bonks  (which  exist) 

Pronounce:  vwala  de  li:vr,  yn  plym,  e  de  krejo;  es  la  liivr,  la 
plym,  e  le  krejo  ka  vu  Ser^e.  syr  la  tabl  iija  dy  papje,  da  la  kre,  da 
1  a:kr,  de  reigl,  da  bo  krejS,  e  boku  da  plym,  mez  il  nja  pa  da  liivr. 


INDEFINITE  AND  PARTITIVE  CONSTRUCTIONS    21 

Comparison  of  the  preceding  sentences  leads  us  to 
think  that  tlie  complete  expression  should  mean  some  oj 
the,  but  that  English  omits  oj  the,  and  French  omits  some, 
the  implied  relative  clause  at  the  end  being  omitted  in 
both  languages. 

36.  The  partitive  adjective  some  is  often  omitted  in 
English,  but  a  French  partitive  noun  must  always  have 
its  "partitive  article,"  composed  of  de  and  the  definite 
article,  except  in  the  case  of: 

1.  Partitives  closely  joined  to  a  verb,  as  avoir  faim,  to 
he  hungry;  avoir  soif,  to  he  thirsty;  avoir  peur,  to  he  afraid; 
avoir  besoin,  to  need;  prendre  garde,  to  take  care;  faire 
attention,  to  pay  attention. 

2.  Partitives  introduced  by  the  prepositions  sans  or  de 
(and  occasionally  avec  or  a),  as  du  pain  sans  beurre,  hread 
without  butter;  sans  peur  et  sans  reproche,  without  fear 
and  without  reproach;  un  morceau  de  pain,  a  piece  of  hread; 
une  plume  d'or,  a  gold  pen;  une  tasse  de  cafe,  a  cup  of 
coffee;  plein  de  vin,  full  of  wine;  peu  d 'argent,  Utile  money; 
beaucoup  de  patience,  much  patience;  assez  de  papier, 
paper  enough;  trop  d'eau,  too  much  water;  tant  de  livres, 
so  many  hooks;  autant  de  tableaux,  as  many  pictures;  pas 
de  crayons,  no  pencils;  plus  de  temps,  no  more  time;  il  n'a 
guere  d'amis,  he  has  hut  few  friends;  je  ne  mange  jamais 
de  grenouilles,  /  never  eat  frogs;  avec  plaisir,  ivith  pleas- 
ure; avec  joie,  gladly;  chapeau  a  plumes,  plumed  hat. 

Note  especially  the  partitives  connected  by  de  with  a 
noun,  an  adverb  of  negation  (pas,  plus,  guere,  jamais),  or 
an  adverb  of  quantity  (tant,  beaucoup,  trop,  assez,  etc.). 
(See  §  137,  2/.) 

After  etre,  however,  an  adverb  of  negation  affects  the 


22      SUBSTANTIVES   AND  THEIR  SUBORDINATES 

verb  rather  than  a  following  predicate  nominative,  and 
the  definite  article  is  used :  ce  n'est  pas  du  vin,  that  is  not 
wine;  ce  ne  sont  pas  des  fraises,  those  are  not  strawberries. 
Compare  with  je  ne  bois  pas  de  vin,  /  drink  no  wine;  il 
n'a  pas  de  fraises,  he  has  no  strawberries. 

3.  Partitives  in  an  enumeration  or  series,  where  the 
repetition  of  an  article  would  be  tedious,  as,  vin,  biere, 
pain,  beurre,  fromage,  viande,  il  avalait  tout,  he  gobbled 
everything,  wine,  beer,  bread,  butter,  cheese,  meat. 

4.  Partitives  that  follow  the  conjunctions  ni  .  .  .  ni, 
neither  .  .  .  nor,  or  soit  .  .  .  soit,  either  .  .  .  or:  soit  peur, 
soit  colere,  either  fear  or  anger;  ni  parents  ni  amis,  neither 
relatives  nor  friends. 

31.  When  an  adjective  precedes  the  partitive  noun,  it 
is  usual  to  omit  the  definite  article:  de  bon  papier,  good 
paper;  de  tels  enfants,  such  children;  de  mauvais  pain,  bad 
bread;  but  with  adjective  after  the  noun  use  the  definite 
article,  du  papier  rouge,  red  paper;  des  enfants  sages, 
good  children;  du  pain  sec,  dry  bread. 

EXERCISE  X 
I.   Change  each  of  the  following  sentences : 
By  putting  before  each  noun  an  adjective:  bon,  beau, 

joli,  grand,  etc.     E.g.  Nous  avons  de  bon  papier,  etc. 
By  putting  before  each  noun  an  adverb  of  quantity :  peu, 

assez,  tant,  etc.     E.g.  Je  vois  beaucoup  de  garfons,  etc. 
By  putting  after  each  noun  an  adjective:  rouge,  stu- 

dieux,  casse,  mur,  etc.     E.g.  Elle  cherche  des  pommes 

rouges,  etc. 

By  using  an  adverb  of  negation:  pas,  plus,  guere,  jamais, 

etc.    E.g.  Vous  n'achetez  jamais  d'encre  ni  de  livres. 


INDEFINITE  AND   PARTITIVE   CONSTRUCTIONS     23 

A  negative  sentence  must  have  ne  before  the  verb.     The 
negative  of  et  is  ni. 

1.  Nous  avons  (have)  du  papier,  de  la  craie,  et  des  crayons. 

2.  Je  vols  (see)  des  gardens  et  des  filles. 

3.  Elle  cherche  (seeks)  des  pommes  et  des  oranges. 

4.  Vous  achetez  (binj)  de  I'encre  et  des  livres. 

5.  Le  petit  Jean  a  (has)  des  balles,  des  biUes,  et  des  toupies. 

II.   Translate  the  following  expressions: 

1.  Paper,  chaUc,  ink,  and  books;  courage  and  patience;  nuts, 
apples,  and  oranges;  tea,  coffee,  milk,  and  water;  tops  and  mar- 
bles; frogs  and  fishes;  bread,  butter,  and  cheese. 

2.  To  be  cold,  to  be  hungry,  to  be  thirsty,  to  be  frightened, 
to  take  care,  to  pay  attention. 

3.  Coffee  without  sugar;  without  money  and  without  friends; 
a  gold  cup;  full  of  water;  a  piece  of  cheese;  a  box  of  chalk. 

4.  No  more  money;  no  ink;  httle  patience;  wine  enough;  so 
much  rain;  too  much  snow;  few  books;  much  courage;  many 
friends. 

CHAPTER  II 

FUNDAMENTAL  VERB-FORMS 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS,   PRESENT   INDICATIVE,   AND 
IMPERATIVE 

38.  All  forms  of  most  French  verbs  may  be  derived 
from  five  principal  parts  or  primitive  tenses.  These  five 
principal  parts  are:  (1)  the  infinitive,  the  form  usually 
given  in  word-lists;  (2)  the  present  participle;  (3)  the 
past  participle;  (4)  the  first  person  singular  of  the  present 

Pronou7ice:  nuz  av5  dy  papje,  de  la  kre,  e  de  krejo.  3a  vwa  de 
garsoz  e  de  fi:j.  el  ^er^  de  pomz  e  dez  ora:3.  vuz  a^te  da  1  aikr  e  de 
liivr.    b  pati  3a  a  de  bal,  de  bi:j,  e  de  tupi. 


24 


FUNDAMENTAL   VERB-FORMS 


indicative;  and  (5)  the  first  person  singular  of  the  past 
definite.    For  sixteen  common  verbs  these  parts  are: 


Infinitive 

Present  Part. 

Past  Part. 

Pres.  Ind. 

Past  Def, 

donner,  give 

donnant 

donne 

donne 

donna/ 

finrr,  finish 

finissan/ 

fin/ 

fin/s 

fin/s 

romp  re,  break 

Tompant 

rompu 

romps 

romprs 

avoir,  have 

ayant 

eu 

ai 

eus 

etre,  be 

etant 

ete 

suis 

fus 

aller,  go 

allant 

alle 

vais 

allaf 

venir,  come 

venan/ 

venu 

viens 

vins 

dire,  say 

disant 

dit 

dis 

dis 

faire,  do 

faisan/ 

iait 

fais 

fi<7 

mettre,  put 

taettant 

mis 

mets 

mis 

prendre,  take 

prenan/ 

pris 

prends 

pris 

recevo/r,  receive 

recevan/ 

refu 

refois 

refus 

voir,  see 

voyant 

vu 

vois 

vis 

savoir,  know 

sachant 

su 

sais 

sus 

voulo/r,  tvish 

voulan/ 

voulu 

veux 

voulus 

pouvoir,  be  able 

pouvan/ 

pu 

peux 

pus 

39.     Infinitive   endings   are   -er,    -ir,   -oir,    and   -re. 

About  nine  tenths  of  all  French  verbs  end  in  -er. 
All  present  participles  end  in  -ant. 
The  first  singular  present  indicative  ends 

in  -e  (all  -er  verbs  except  aller;  also  a  few  -ir  verbs), 
in  -s  (aller,  most  -ir  and  -oir,  and  all  -re  verbs),  or 
in  -X  (pouvoir,  valoir,  vouloir). 
Avoir  (ai)  is  the  only  exception. 
The  first  singular  past  definite  ends  in  -ai  for  -er  verbs, 
and  in  -s  for  all  other  verbs. 

Pronounce:  done,  dona,  done,  don,  done;  finiir,  finiso,  fini,  fini,  fiiii: 
ro:pr,  r5pa,  ropy,  ro:p,  ropi;  avwa:r,  eja,  y,  e,  y;  e:tr,  eta,  ete,  sqi,  fy; 
ale,  ala,  ale,  ve,  ale;  vaniir,  vona,  vony,  vje,  ve;  di:r,  diza,  di,  di,  di: 
fe:r,  foza,  fe,  fe,  fi;  metr,  meta,  mi,  me,  mi;  pra:dr,  prona,  pri,  pro, 
pri;  r9S9Vwa:r,  rasava,  rasy,  raswa,  rasy;  vwa:r,  vwaja,  vy,  vwa,  vi; 
savwair,  sa$a,  sy,  se,  sy;  vulwa.T,  vula,  vuly,  V0,  vuly;  puvwair, 
puva,  py,  po,  py. 


PRESENT   INDICATIVE    SINGULAR  25 

40.  The  part  of  a  tense  which  changes  to  express  dif- 
ferences in  person  or  number  is  called  the  ending;  the 
remaining  portion  is  called  the  stem  of  the  tense.  The 
stems  'of  donner,  finir,  and  rompre  are  the  same  in  all  the 
principal  parts,  except  that  finir  inserts  the  syllable  -iss- 
in  the  presertit  participle.  A  verb  conjugated  throughout 
like  one  or  these  is  called  regular  or  weak.  Other  verbs 
have  one  or  more  changes,  usually  in  the  stem,  and  are 
called  irregular  or  strong  verbs.  Their  principal  parts 
must  be  learned  with  the  utmost  care. 

PRESENT   INDICATIVE    SINGULAR 

41.  When  the  first  singular  present  indicative  ends  in 
-e  the  second  person  ends  in  -es  and  the  third  in  -e. 

When  the  first  singular  ends  in  -s  or  -x  the  second  sin- 
gular is  hke  the  first,  and  the  third  generally  ends  in  -t; 
but  this  -t  is  omitted  after  final  c,  d,  or  t  of  the  stem. 

43.  The  personal  pronouns  used  as  subjects  are  je,  /, 
tu,  ijou,  il,  he,  it,  elle,  she,  it,  nous,  ive,  vous,  you,  ils,  elles, 
theij,  as, 

je  donne,  tu  donnes,  il  donne,  elle  donne;  nous  donnons, 
vous  donnez,  ils  donnent,  elles  donnent. 

je  romps,  tu  romps,  il  rompt,  elle  rompt;  nous  rompons, 
vous  rompez,  ils  rompent,  elles  rompent. 

EXERCISE  XI 

Write  the  present  indicative  singular  of  the  verbs  in  §  38, 
omitting  avoir,  etre,  and  aller. 

Write  the  principal  parts  and  the  present  indicative 
singular  of  the  regular  verbs : 

Pronotmce:  3a  don,  ty  don,  il  don,  el  don;  nu  donS,  vu  done,  il  don, 
el  don.    39  r5,  ty  r5,  il  r5,  el  ro;  nu  rop5,  vu  rope,  il  ro:p,  el  ro:p. 


26 


FUNDAMENTAL  VERB-FORMS 


regarder,  to  watch;  trouver,  to  firid;  parler,  to  speak;  aimer, 
to  love;  rougir,  to  grow  red;  palir,  to  grow  pale;  jaunir,  to  grow 
yellow;  blanchir,  to  grow  white;  r^pondre,  to  answer;  perdre,  to 
lose;  vendre,  to  sell;  attendre,  to  wait. 

PRESENT   INDICATIVE   PLURAL 

43.  To  form  tlie  plural  of  the  present  indicative, 
change  -ant  of  the  present  participle  into  -ons,  -ez,  -ent. 
Thus  in  finir  the  stem  of  the  plural  of  the  present  indica- 
tive is  not  fin-,  as  in  the  singular  and  in  the  infinitive, 
but  finiss-,  and  the  present  indicative  plural  is  therefore 
fmissons,  finissez,  finissent. 

44.  Notice  that  the  endings  of  the  present  indicative 
are  mute,  except  in  the  first  and  second  persons  plural. 


EXERCISE  Xn 


Write  the  present  inchcative  plural  of  the  regular  verbs 
given  in  the  last  exercise. 

Write  the  present  indicative  of  the  verbs  whose  princi- 
pal parts  are 


ecrire,  write 

ecrivant 

ecrit 

ecris 

ecrivis 

craindre,  fear 

craignant 

craint 

crains 

craignis 

conduire,  lead 

conduisant 

conduit 

conduis 

conduisis 

partir,  start 

partant 

parti 

pars 

partis 

suivre,  follow 

suivant 

suivi 

suis 

suivis 

valoir,  he  worth 

valant 

valu 

vaux 

valus 

vivre,  he  alive 

vivant 

vecu 

vis 

vecus 

lire,  read 

lisant 

lu 

Us 

lus 

Pronounce:  ekriir,  ekriva,  ekri,  ekri,  ekrivi;  kre:dr,  krejia,  kre, 
kre,  krejii;  kodqiir,  kSdiiiza,  kodqi,  kodqi,  kodqizi;  parti :r,  parta, 
parti,  par,  parti;  sijiivr,  sqiva,  sijivi,  sqi,  sqivi;  valwair,  vala,  valy, 
vo,  valy;  vi:\T,  viva,  veky,  vi,  veky;  li:r,  liza,  ly,  11,  ly. 


PRESENT   INDICATIVE    PLURAL 


ouvrir,  open  ouvrant  ouvert         ouvre        ouvris 

naitre,  he  horn         naissant  ne  nais  naquis 

i  before  t,  in  naitre,  paraitre,  etc. 

45.  When  the  ending  is  mute^  the  voice-stress  (tonic 
accent)  falls  upon  the  last  vowel  of  the  stem,  called  the 
stem  vowel.  This  often  causes  a  change,  called  strengthen- 
ing, in  the  stem  vowel,  which  changes  from  a  dose  vowel 
(one  made  with  the  mouth  nearly  closed)  to  an  oyen 
vowel  (one  made  with  the  mouth  well  open),  or  even  to 
a  diphthong.    Thus  we  have 

ceder,  yield  je  cede         nous  cedons         ils  cedent 

lever,  lijt  je  leve  nous  levons  ils  levent 

geler,  freeze  je  gele  nous  gelons  ils  gelent 

acb.eter,  huy  j'achete        nous  achetons      ils  achetent 

Jeter,  throw  je  jette         nous  jetons  ils  jettent 

appeler,  call  j'appelle       nous  appelons      ils  appellent 

mourir,  die  je  meurs      nous  mourons      ils  meurent 

vouloir,  wish  je  veux         nous  voulons        ils  veulent 

pouvoir,  he  able      je  peux         nous  pouvons        ils  peuvent 
tenir,  hold  je  tiens         nous  tenons  ils  tiennent 

devoir,  oice  je  dois  nous  devons         ils  doivent 

boire,  drink  je  bois  nous  buvons         ils  boivent 

Some  people  seem  to  consider  this  strengthening  very 
mysterious  and  difficult.  In  fact,  nothing  could  be  sim- 
pler. More  stress  requires  more  breath;  more  breath  re- 
quires a  wider  mouth  opening  to  let  it  out;  opening  the 
mouth  wider  means  naturally  a  change  to  a  more  open 
vowel. 

Pronounce:  uvri:r,  uvra_,  uve:r,  uivr,  uvri;  neitr,  nesa,  ne,  ne,  naki. 

sede,  39  sed,  nu  sed5,  11  sed;  bve,  39  leiv,  nu  bv5,  11  le:v;  3ale, 
39  3el,  nu  39I5,  il  5el;  a^ste,  3aSet,  nuz  a^ato,  ilz  a^et;  39te,  39  set,  nu 
39t5,  il  3et;  apale,  sapel,  nuz  apalo,  ilz  apel;  muri:r,  39  moeir,  nu 
muro,  il  moe:r;  \Tzlwa:r,  59  vo,  nu  \'ulo,  il  va'l;  puvwair,  39  po,  nu 
puv5,  il  pce:v;  t9ni:r,  39  tje,  nu  t9n5,  il  tjen;  davwair,  39  dwa,  nu 
d9v5,  il  dwa:v;  bwa:r,  39  bwa,  nu  byvo,  il  bwaiv. 


28  FUNDAMENTAL  VERB-FORMS 

—  46.  It  will  be  noticed  that  before  mute  e  the  final 
consonant  of  the  stem  doubles  in  jeter,  appeler,  and  tenir. 
We  recognize  an  e  as  mute  (§  9)  when  it  ends  a  syllable 
and  has  no  written  accent.  As  syllables  in  French  must 
begin  with  a  consonant  whenever  possible  (§  12),  we 
divide  je-ter,  appe-ler,  te-nir,  and  see  that  the  stem  vowel 
is  mute.  But  a  mute  syllable  can  never  have  voice-stress; 
and  that  the  stem  vowel,  mute  e,  becomes  an  open  e 
before  a  mute  ending  may  be  shown  either  by  writing  the 
grave  accent  over  it,  as  in  leve,  gele,  achetent,  or  by 
doubling  the  following  consonant  as  in  jet-te,  appel-le, 
vien-nent,  so  that  the  e  of  the  stem  no  longer  ends  the 
syllable.  Most  verbs  in  -eler  and  -eter  double  the  con- 
sonant. We  must  observe  and  remember  those  that  are 
written  with  the  grave  accent. 

The  stem  strengthening  explained  in  §  45  and  §  46 
occurs  before  a  mute  ending  in  the  present  indicative, 
present  imperative,  and  present  subjunctive,  and  is  to  be 
expected  there  whenever  the  first  singular  of  the  present 
indicative  has  a  strengthened  form. 

EXERCISE  Xm 

Write  the  present  indicative  of  the  verbs  in  §  45,  also 
of 

venir,  prendre  and  its  compounds:  apprendre,  to  learn,  com- 
prendre,  to  imderstand,  surprendre,  to  surprise;  mener  (mene),  to 
lead,  rep^ter  (r^pete),  to  repeat,  peler  (pele),  to  peel. 

Give  orally  the  present  indicative  of  three  verbs  that 
change  atonic  ou  of  the  stem  to  eu  in  stressed  position; 
of  five  verbs  that  change  mute  e  or  close  e  (e)  to  open 
e;  of  two  verbs  that  strengthen  mute  e  to  ie  (open  e). 


ORTHOGRAPHIC   CONVENTIONS  29 

ORTHOGRAPHIC    CONVENTIONS 

47.  Certain  verbs  use  the  letter  y  before  a  pronounced 
vowel,  and  i  before  mute  e  or  a  consonant.    So  we  have 

croire,  believe  croyant,  cru,  crois,  croyons,  croient 

employer,  employ  employe,  emploie,  employons,  emploient 
appuyer,  support        appuye,  appuie,  appuyons,  appuient 

After  e,  and  sometimes  after  a,  y  is  used  before  mute  e 
also,  as  in 

grasseyer,  speak  thick  grasseye,  grasseyons,  grasseyent 
asseoir,  seat  asseyant,  asseyons,  asseyez,  asseyent 

payer,  pay  payant,  pale,  paient,  or  paye,  payent 

48.  The  letters  c  and  g  have  a  "soft"  sound  (s,  3)  be- 
fore front  vowels  (e,  i),  and  a  "hard"  sound  (k,  g)  before 
back  vowels  (a,  o,  u).  W^hen  these  letters  have  the  soft 
sound  in  the  infinitive,  the  same  sound  must  be  kept 
throughout;  so  before  a,  o,  or  u  we  write  a  cedilla  under 
c,  "and  an  e  after  g,  as  in 

placer,  place  plagant,  place,  place,  plagons,  placent,  plafai 
manger,  eat  mange,  mange,  mangeons,  mangent,  mangeai 
recevoir,  receive  regu,  ref ois,  recevons,  refoivent,  refus 

EXERCISE  XIV 

Write  the  present  indicative  of 

voir  (see  §  38),  croire,  employer,  essuyer,  appuyer,  nettoyer, 
manger,  tracer,  forcer,  effacer,  plonger. 

Pronounce:  krwa:r,  krwaja,  kry,  krwo,  krwajo,  krwa;  aplwaje, 
aplwaje,  aplwa,  aplwajo,  aplwa;  apqije,  apiiije,  apqi,  apqijo,  apqi. 

graseje,  grase:j,  grasejS,  graseij;  aswair,  aseja,  asejS,  assje,  ase:j; 
peje,  peja,  pe. 

plase,  plasa,  plase,  plas,  plas5,  plas,  plase;  mase,  mase,  mais, 
ma35,  mass,  mase;  r8S8vwa:r,  rasy,  raswa,  resavo,  raswaiv,  rasy. 


30  FUNDAMENTAL  VERB-FORMS 

Write  the  present  indicative  of  the  verbs  whose  princi- 
pal parts  are 

fixir,  jlee  fuyant  fui  fixis  fuis 

asseoir,  seat  asseyant  assis  assieds  assis 

49.  The  following  verbs  must  be  learned  with  especial 
care: 

Present  Indicative 

avoir:     ai,  as,  a;  avons,  avez,  ont 

etre:       suis,  es,  est;  sommes,  etes,  sont 

aller:      vais,  vas,  va;  allons,  allez,  vont 

Three  second  plurals  end  in  -tes:  etes,  dites,  faites. 
Four  third  plurals  end  in  -ont:  ont,  sont,  vont,  font. 
Savoir  has  the  stem  sav-  in  the  plural:  savons,  savez, 
savent. 

EXERCISE  XV 

I.  Write  from  memory  the  present  indicative  of 
avoir,  etre,  aller,  dire,  fairs,  savoir. 

II.  Translate: 

(a)  You  {use  vous)  go,  you  are,  you  have,  you  say,  you  see, 
you  make,  you  come,  you  know. 

{b)  I  go,  I  give,  I  wish,  I  am,  I  have,  I  come,  I  know,  I  take, 
I  put,  I  can. 

(c)  I  finish,  we  finish;  I  believe,  we  believe;  I  receive,  we  re- 
ceive; I  go,  we  go;  I  am,  we  are;  I  have,  we  have;  I  yield,  we 
yield;  I  lift,  we  lift;  I  owe,  we  owe;  I  drink,  we  drink;  I  call,  we 
call;  I  can,  we  can;  I  wish,  we  wish. 

{d)  He  is  freezing,  you  are  freezing;  he  throws,  you  throw; 
he  holds,  you  hold;  he  is  dying,  you  are  dying;  he  leads,  you 
lead;  he  repeats,  you  repeat;  he  comes,  you  come;  he  receives, 

Pronounce:  fqi:r,  fqija,  fqi,  fqi,  fiji;  aswair,  aseja,  asi,  asje,  asi. 
e,  a,  a;  av5,  ave,  5.    sqi,  8,  c;  som,  et,  s5.    ve,  va,  va;  alo,  ale,  v5. 
et,  dit,  fet.    5,  so,  v5,  f5.    savo,  save,  saiv. 


IMPERATIVE  31 

you  receive;  he  knows,  you  know;  he  wishes,  you  wish;  he  can, 
you  can;  he  is  going,  you  are  going. 

(e)  We  are,  they  are;  we  have,  they  have;  we  go,  they  go;  we 
make,  they  make;  we  come,  they  come;  we  receive,  they  receive; 
we  take,  they  take;  we  wish,  they  wish;  we  drink,  they  drink; 
we  can,  they  can;  we  see,  they  see;  we  place,  they  place;  we  eat, 
they  eat;  we  flee,  they  flee;  we  trace,  they  trace;  we  plunge, 
they  plunge;  we  are  cleaning,  they  are  cleaning. 


IMPERATIVE 

50.  The  imperative  has  three  persons:  second  singu- 
lar and  second  plural,  and  a  first  plural  commonly  trans- 
lated let  us ,  as,  ayons,  let  us  have;  soyons,  let  us  he; 

sachons,  let  us  know.  The  second  person  singular  is  like 
the  first  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative;  or  like 
the  second  singular  if  the  final  -s  be  dropped  in  -er 
verbs;  the  first  and  second  persons  of  the  plural  are  like 
the  same  persons  of  the  present  indicative.  No  subject 
pronouns  are  used  with  the  imperative. 


Imperative 

donner : 

donne,  donnons,  donnez 

finir: 

finis,  finissons,  finissez 

recevoir : 

refois,  recevons,  recevez 

dire: 

dis,  disons,  dites 

faire: 

fais,  faisons,  faites 

Exceptions  are 

avoir: 

aie,  ayons,  ayez 

etre: 

sois,  soyons,  soyez 

aller: 

va,  allons,  allez 

savoir : 

sache,  sachons,  sachez 

Pronounce:  don,  dono,  done;  fini,  finiso,  finise;  roswa,  rasovo,  rasave; 
di,  dizo,  dit;  fe,  faso,  fet.  8!J,  8J5,  eje;  swa,  swajo,  swaje;  va,  alo, 
ale;  sa^,  sa^S,  sa^e. 


32  FUNDAIVIENTAL  VERB-FORMS 


EXERCISE  XVI 

I.  Write  the  imperative  of  the  verbs  in  §§  38,  44,  45, 
and  48. 

II.  Translate: 

(a)  {Use  singular  of  second-person  verbs.)  Come!  Let  us 
come!  Go!  Let  us  go!  Say!  Let  us  say!  Be  good  (sage)! 
Let  us  be  good!  Have  patience  (patience,  /.)!  Let  us  have 
patience!  Do  that  (cela) !  Let  us  do  that!  Lift  the  head  (tete, 
/.)!  Let's  Uft  the  head!  Throw  the  ball!  Let's  throw  the  ball! 
Call  Mary!  Let's  call  Mary!  Hold  the  rope  (corde, /.) !  Let's 
hold  the  rope!  Drink  the  milk  (lait,  7n.)\  Let's  drink  the  milk! 
Give  the  hand  (main,  /.) !  Let's  give  the  hand!  Break  the  stick 
(baguette,/.)!  Let's  break  the  stick!  Take  the  pen!  Let's  take 
the  pen!  Know  how  (savoir)  to  wait!  Let's  know  how  to  wait! 
Buy  some  oranges!    Let's  buy  some  oranges! 

(b)  (Use  plnral  of  second-person  verbs.)  Come  now  (mainte- 
nant)!  Let's  come  now!  Go  yonder  (la-bas) !  Let's  go  yonder! 
Tell  the  truth  (verite,  /.)!  Let's  tell  the  truth!  Make  a  ball! 
Let's  make  a  ball!  Know  the  truth!  Let's  know  the  truth! 
Receive  that  gentleman!  Let's  receive  that  gentleman!  Buy 
some  apples!  Let  us  buy  some  apples!  Take  some  chalk! 
Don't  take  any  chalk!  Let's  take  some  chalk!  Let  us  take  no 
chalk!  Drink  some  water!  Drink  no  water!  Let  us  drink 
some  coffee!  Let  us  not  drink  coffee!  Be  happy!  Let  us  be 
happy!  Have  courage!  Let  us  have  courage!  Reply  to  Henry! 
Let  us  reply  to  Henry !  Open  the  door !  Let  us  open  the  door ! 
Shut  the  window!  Let  us  shut  the  window!  Fear  nothing 
(ne  .  .  .  rien)!  Let  us  fear  nothing!  Finish  this  exercise 
(exercice,  ?«.)!    Let  us  finish  this  exercise! 

(c)  You  are  sad,  be  gay!  Are  you  afraid?  Don't  be  afraid! 
You  say  nothing;  say  something!  We  are  doing  well,  but  let 
us  do  even  (encore)  better  to-morrow! 


INTERROGATIVE   FORMS  33 

INTERROGATIVE   FORMS 

51.  Verbs  may  l^e  made  interrogative  by  prefixing 
est-ce  que,  is  it  true  that,  used  like  English  auxiliary  do, 
did,  etc. 

Declarative  Interrogati\'e 

Je  donne,  /  give.  Est-ce  que  je  donne?   Do  I  give? 

Vous  dites,  You  say.  Est-ce  que  vous  dites?  Do  you  say? 

Interrogations  are  also  made  by  inversion,  putting  a 
pronoun  subject  after  the  verb,  as  je  suis;  interrogative, 
suis-je?  vous  faites;  interrogative,  faites-vous?  Jean 
voit;  interrogative,  Jean  voit-il?  Marie  parle;  interroga- 
tive, Marie  parle-t-elle? 

53.  In  the  first  person  singular  of  the  present  indica- 
tive, the  first  method  is  to  be  used  except  for  certain 
monosyllables,  as  suis-je?  ai-je?  dis-je?  puis-je?  fais-je? 
vais-je?  sais-je?  dois-je? 

53.  In  the  third  person  singular,  when  the  verb  ends 
in  a  vowel,  -t-  must  be  inserted  between  the  verb  and  its 
following  pronoun  subject,  as  donne-t-il?  a-t-il?  va-t-elle? 

EXERCISE  XVn 

(a)  Give  each  of  the  follo\\ing  interrogations  in  an- 
other form: 

Dis-je?  Vais-je?  Est-ce  que  nous  savons? 

Ont-ils?  Font-ils?  Est-ce  que  vous  dites? 

Faites-vous?  Puis-je?  Est-ce  qu'ils  vont? 

Est-ce  qu'elle  va?  Ailons-nous?  Est-ce  qu'il  a? 

Pronounce:  39  don,  eskasa  don;  vu  dit,  eska  vu  dit.  3a  sqi,  siii:3; 
vu  fet,  fet  vu;  3a  vwa,  3d  vwatil;  mari  pari,  mari  parlatel. 

siii:3,  e:3,  di:3,  pqi:3,  f8:3,  V8:3,  se:3,  dwai3. 

dontil,  atil,  vatel. 

di:3,  ve:3,  eska  nu  sav5;  atil,  f5til,  eska  vu  dit;  fet  vu,  piii:3,  eskil 
v5;  eskel  va,  al5  nu,  eskil  a? 


34  FUNDAMENTAL   VERB-FORMS 

(6)  Turn  the  following  statements  into  questions: 


11  donne 

EUea 

Vous  ecrivez 

Vous  allez 

Nous  parlons 

lis  regoivent 

Nous  voyons 

Je  vends 

Marie  ecrit 

Je  mange 

11  salt 

Pierre  nage 

Tu  veux 

Je  plonge 

Louise  mange 

(c)  Write  interrogatively  the  present  indicative  of  the 
verbs  in  §§  38,  44,  45,  and  48. 

(fl)  Translate: 

Do  I  give?  does  she  give?  do  you  give?  Do  I  go?  does  he  go? 
do  we  go?  Do  I  have?  does  he  have?  do  they  have?  Do  I 
make?  does  she  make?  do  you  make?  Do  I  say?  does  he  say? 
do  you  say?    Am  I?  is  she?  are  they? 

Do  I  open  the  door?  Does  he  open  the  door?  Do  you  open 
the  door?  Am  I  closing  the  window?  Is  she  closing  the  win- 
dow? Are  we  closing  the  windows?  Am  I  eating  the  apple? 
Is  he  eating  an  apple?  Are  we  eating  apples?  Am  I  writing  an 
exercise?    Is  she  writing  an  exercise?    Are  you  writing  exercises? 

NEGATION 

54.  The  French  negation  with  verbs  is  ne,  placed 
before  the  verb  and  as  near  it  as  possible.  The  negation 
is  almost  invariably  strengthened  by  a  complementary 
substantive  or  adverb  placed  usually  directly  after  the 
verb. 

Je  ne  vais  pas  a  Paris,  /  am  not  going  to  Paris  {not  a  step). 

Je  n'ai  rien,  I  have  nothing  {not  a  thing). 

II  ne  parle  jamais,  he  never  speaks  {not  ever). 

Elle  ne  voit  que  lui,  she  sees  him  only  {none  but  him). 

Pronounce:  11  don,  ela,  vuz  ekrive,  viiz  ale,  nu  parlo,  il  raswaiv,  nu 
vwajS,  39  va,  mari  ekri,  39  mais,  il  se,  pjeir  na:3,  ty  V0,  39  pl5:3,  Iwiiz 
ma:3. 

39  n9  ve  paz  a  pari;  39  ne  rje;  il  n9  pari  3ame;  el  ng  vwa  kg  Iqi. 


PERSONAL   PRONOUNS  35 

EXERCISE  XVIII 

I.  (a)  Write  negatively,  using  ne  .  .  .  pas,  the  present 
indicative  of  the  verbs  in  §§  38,  44,  45,  and  48. 

(b)  Write  the  same  negative-interrogatively  (n'ai-je 
pas,  etc.). 

(c)  Write  with  ne  ".  .  .  rien  the  present  indicative  of 
faire,  dire,  recevoir,  vouloir,  and  manger. 

(rf)  Write  with  ne  .  .  .  jamais  the  present  indicative  of 
etre  malade,  aller  a  Paris,  venir  en  retard,  ceder,  finir. 

(e)  Write  the  negative  imperative  of  the  verbs  in  §§  38, 
44,  45,  and  48. 

II.  Translate: 

I  do  not  give,  I  never  give,  I  give  only  that  (cela).  He  has 
no  apples,  he  has  only  two  apples,  he  has  but  few  apples,  he 
never  has  any  apples.  You  are  doing  nothing,  you  do  only 
that,  you  never  do  that.  You  say  nothing,  you  say  only  that, 
you  never  say  that. 

CHAPTER  III 

PRONOUNS 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

55.  The  pronouns  je  and  nous  always  refer  to  the 
speaker  and  are  said  to  be  of  the  first  person.  Tu  and 
vous  refer  to  the  person  addressed,  and  are  called  sec- 
ond  person,  tu  being  used  only  to  an  animal,  a  child,  an 
intimate  friend,  or  a  near  relative.  II,  lis,  elle,  elles,  refer 
to  that  of  which  we  are  speaking,  and  are  said  to  be 
of  the  third  person.  Since  these  pronouns,  unlike  most 
others,  have  always  the  same  "person"  and  so  determine 
the  "person"  of  their  verbs,  they  are  called  personal 
pronouns.     The  pronouns  mentioned  are  used  as  subject 


tu 

il 

eUe 

nous 

vous 

ils 

eUes 

te 

le 

la 

nous 

vous 

leg 

les 

te 

lui 

lui 

nous 

vous 

leur 

leur 

toi 

lui 

eUe 

nous 

vous 

eux 

elles 

36  PRONOUNS 

of  the  verb;  they  have  corresponding  personal  pronouns 
used  as  direct  or  indirect  objects,  and  others  used  dis- 
junctively, that  is,  not  connected  with  any  verb  as  sub- 
ject or  object. 
Subject  je 

Direct  object  me 
Indirect  object  me 
Disjunctives       moi 

56.  No  verb  can  have  more  than  one  direct  object.  An 
object  that  expresses  the  relation  of  to  or  for,  as:  He  gave 
me  the  book,  meaning  He  gave  the  hook  to  me,  or :  He  bought 
them  some  peaches,  meaning  He  bought  some  peaches  for 
them,  is  called  an  indirect  object.  Distinguish  the  ob- 
jects and  tell  what  pronouns  to  use  in:  He  taught  us 
French,  We  wrote  them  a  letter.  He  asked  her  a  question. 
Tell  us  a  story,  Sell  him  your  boat.  Learn  with  especial 
care  the  indirect  objects  lui  and  leur. 

After  verbs  of  thinking  and  verbs  expressing  motion,  a 
disjunctive  with  a  and  not  an  indirect  object  pronoun  is 
used,  as,  allez  a  lui,  go  to  him;  pensez  a  moi,  think  of  me. 
Penser  also  takes  y,  chiefly  of  things,  pensez-y,  think  of  it. 

EXERCISE  XIX 

Give  the  French  translations  for  words  in  italics: 

1.  He  sends  her  to  the  library.      9.  Go  to  them. 

2.  He  sends  her  some  flowers.      10.  Speak  to  them. 

3.  She  showed  theyn  her  books.    11.  Tell  him  your  name. 

4.  She  showed  them  to  him.  12.  Don't  sell  her  your  dog. 

5.  I  gave  him  a  dog.  13.  She  is  a  good  dog;  don't  sell 

6.  He  gave  Mm  to  Mary.  her. 

7.  You  wrote  me  a  letter.  14.  Ask  them  one  question. 

8.  Come  to  me.  15.  Who  thinks  of  them? 

Pronounce:  39,  ty,  il,  el,  nu,  vu,  il,  el;  ma,  ta,  b,  la,  le;  Iqi,  Icfiir; 
mwa,  twa,  0.  aleza  Iqi;  paseza  mwa;  pasezi. 


PERSONAL   PRONOUNS  37 

57.  Est-ce  vous  qui  dites  cela?  Non,  ce  n'est  pas  nous  qui 
le  disons,  c'est  lui.  Allez-vious  avec  moi  ou  avec  eux?  Moi, 
je  vais  avec  toi,  mais  lui  va  avec  eux.  Ce  sont  elles.  Cette 
plume  est  a  mon  frere,  elle  n'est  pas  a  vous. 

The  disjunctives  are  well  termed  "stressed  forms," 
because  they  are  always  used  when  an  emphatic  or 
stressed  pronoun  is  desired.  Study  especially  the  stressed 
pronouns  of  the  third  person.  Notice  that  when  em- 
phatic those  of  the  third  person  may  be  used  as  subject 
of  the  verb.  Another  way  to  emphasize  the  pronoun  is  to 
put  it  last,  as,  lis  ne  vont  pas,  eux.  A  stressed  word  is 
usually  put  at  the  end  of  its  word-group. 


EXERCISE  XX 

Give  the  following  sentences,  substituting  other  pro- 
nouns for  those  in  italics,  as,  tu  le  crois,  toi;  il  le  croit,  lui, 
etc.: 

Je  le  crois,  moi.  C'est  moi  qui  le  dis.  II  parle  de  moi.  Elle 
me  voit.    II  me  parle.    II  m'ecrit  souvent  des  lettres. 

Repeat,  making  sentences  negative. 

58.  n  nous  regarde.  Ne  /e  regardez  pas,  regardez-mor. 
Elle  me  suit.  Ne  la  suivez  pas,  suivez-/e.  Assieds-/o/!  Je 
vais  m'asseoir  pres  de  la  table. 

Pronounce:  es  vu  ki  dit  sala?  no,  sa  ne  pa  nu  ki  b  diz5,  se  liji. 
ale  vuz  avek  mwa  u  avek  0?  mwa,  33  vez  avek  twa,  me  \\\i  va  avek  0. 
89  sot  el.    set  plym  et  a  mo  fre:r,  el  ne  paz  a  vu.    il  na  vo  pa,  0. 

ty  la  krwa,  twa;  il  lo  krwo,  h\\;  39  b  krwa,  mwa;  se  mwa  ki  b  di, 
se  twa  ki  I9  di,  se  vu  ki  b  dit;  il  pari  d9  mwa,  il  pari  d9  Iqi,  il  pari 
del,  il  pari  de;  el  m9  vwa,  el  b  vwa;  il  m9  pari,  il  Iqi  pari,  il  Ioe:r  pari; 
il  mekri  suva  de  letr,  il  loe:r  ekri  suva  de  letr. 

il  nu  ragard.  n9  la  ragarde  pa,  ragarde  mwa.  el  ma  sqi.  na  la 
sqive  pa,  sqive  la.    Asje  twa!    3a  ve  maswair  pre  da  la  tabl. 


38  PRONOUNS 

Objective  personal  pronouns  stand  before  the  verb  ex- 
cept with  the  imperative  affirmative.  Note  that  after 
the  imperative  the  stressed  forms  moi  and  toi,  not  the 
unstressed  forms  me  or  te,  are  used  at  the  end  of  a  word- 
group. 

EXERCISE  XXI 

Give  the  following  sentences,  substituting  other  pro- 
nouns for  those  in  italics: 

II  me  parle  en  me  regardant.  Elle  yne  sourit  en  ^'appelant. 
Asseyez-vous  pres  de  moi.  lis  vont  chanter  avec  7noi.  Elle  va 
me  S^^B^  des  cerises.  Tais-toi,  ne  hii  dis  pas  cela.  Meis-toi 
pres  de  la  porte.    Envoyez-//?oi  de  vos  nouvelles.    Qui  ?/;e  volt? 

59.  In  the  third  person,  an  objective  pronoun  referring 
to  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  se,  not  le,  la,  lui,  les,  or  leur. 

Thus  il  se  volt  means  he  sees  himself,  11  le  volt,  he  sees 
him,  i.e.  some  other  person;  lis  se  lavent  means  they  are 
washing  themselves,  lis  les  lavent,  they  are  washing  them, 
i.e.  some  other  persons  or  things.  An  objective  pronoun 
referring  to  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  called  "reflexive" 
and  a  verb  that  has  such  an  object  is  called  a  reflexive 
verb.  Th^  present  indicative  and  imperative  of  s'asseoir, 
to  seat  oneself,  are 

je  m'assieds  nous  nous  asseyons  assieds-Zo/I 

tu  /'assieds  vous  vous  asseyez  asseyons-nousi 

il  s'assied  ils  s'asseyent  asseyez-vousl 

elle  s'assied  elles  s'asseyent 

Pronounce:  il  mo  pari  a  ma  ragcarda.  el  ma  suri  a  mapala.  aseje 
vii  pre  da  mwa.  il  v5  ^ate  avek  mwa.  el  va  mo  done  de  sariiz.  te 
twa,  no  Iqi  di  pa  sola,  me  twa  pre  do  la  port,  avwaje  mwa  do  vo 
nuvel.    ki  mo  vwa? 

il  so  vwa;  il  la  vwa;  il  so  laiv;  il  le  laiv. 

30  masje,  ty  tasje,  il  sasje,  el  sasje;  nu  nuz  asejS,  vu  vuz  aseje,  il 
saseij,  el  sase:j;  asje  twa,  asejo  nu,  aseje  vu. 


PERSONAL   PRONOUNS  39 

What  is  the  syntax  of  the  first  pronoun?  of  the  second? 
Give  the  negative  imperative;  the  present  indicative  in- 
terrogative. 

60.     French  often  uses  a  reflexive  form  where  EngHsh 
uses  a  passive  verb:  •*  -^ 

Cela  se  voit  souvent,  that  is  often  seen. 

Cela  se  fait  tous  les  jours,  that  is  done  every  day. 


EXERCISE  XXn 

Write  both  affirmatively  and  negatively  the  present  in- 
dicative and  the  imperative  of  the  following  reflexives : 

se  mettre  a  table,  se  tenir  debout,  se  laver  les  mains,  s'asseoir 
a  terra,  s'iippeler  Henri,  s'excuser  d'arriver  en  retard,  se  sauver 
bien  vite,  se  lever  de  bonne  heure,  se  coucher  tard,  s'adresser  a 
un  sergent  de  viUe. 

61.    Quand  allez-vous  a  I'eglise?   J'y  vais  le  dimanche. 
Revenez-vous  de  la  poste?    Oui,  j'en  reviens. 
Avez-vous  des  sous?    Je  n'en  ai  pas. 
Va-t-il  a  la  banque?   II  n'^  va  pas,  il  en  revient. 

Two  little  words,  y  and  en,  originally  adverbs  meaning 
there  or  thither,  and  from  there,  have  come  to  be  used  as 
pronouns,  or  rather  as  pro-phrases,  y  replaces  a  phrase 
beginning  with  a  or  some  similar  preposition  of  location  or 
direction   (dans,  chez) ;  en  replaces  a  phrase  beginning 


Pronounce:  s(8)la  sa  vwa  suva;  sola  sa  fe  tu  le  3u:r. 

S9  metr  a  tabl;  sa  taniir  dabu;  sa  lave  le  me;  saswa:r  a  te:r;  sapale 
ari;  sekskyze  darive  a  ratair;  sa  sove  bje  vit;  sa  lave  da  ban  cE:r;  sa 
ku^e  ta:r;  s'adrese  a  de  sersa  da  vil. 

kat  ale  vuz  a  legliiz?  3!  ve  la  dima:^.  ravane  vu  da  la  post?  wi, 
3a  ravje.  ave  vu  de  su?  3a  na  ne  pa.  vatil  a  la  ba:k?  il  ni  va  pa, 
il  a  ravje. 


40  PRONOUNS 

with  the  preposition  de.     En  and  y  have  the  position  of 
objective  personal  pronouns. 

In  the  preceding  sentences  what  phrases  do  y  and  en 
replace? 

EXERCISE  XXm 

I.  Replace  italicized  phrases  by  y  or  en : 

Voila  notre  ecole;  je  vais  a  Vecole  a  neuf  heures  du  matin  et  je 
reviens  de  Vecole  a  deux  heures  de  Fapres-midi. 

Cast  une  baiique;  on  va  d  la  hanque  chercher  de  I'argent,  et 
Ton  revient  de  la  banque  la  poche  pleine. 

C'est  une  bonne  affaire;  je  pense  d  cette  affaire  tous  les  jours, 
et  je  parle  de  cette  affaire  sou  vent. 

Quel  beau  jardin !  Des  rosiers  fleurissent  dans  ce  jardin,  et  Ton 
cueille  dans  ce  jardin  de  jolis  bouquets. 

II.  Translate: 

1.  I  am  going  there  and  he  is  coming  back  from  there. 

2.  Roses  bloom  there,  and  Mary  picks  some  often. 

3.  They  have  horses,  and  we  have  none. 

4.  Are  you  going  there?    No,  I  am  coming  back  from  there. 

5.  Who  thinks  of  that  (a  cela)?  I  think  of  it  often  and  I 
speak  of  it  every  day. 

63.  Marie  est  contente,  et  je  le  suis  aussi  (le  =  content[e]). 
Pierre  est  malade,  mais  sa  mere  ne  le  salt  pas  (le  =  que 
Pierre  est  malade). 

The  invariable  pronoun  le  is  used  in  the  predicate  as  a 
pro-adjective  or  pro-clause;  that  is,  to  take  the  place  of 
an  adjective  or  of  a  clause  (English  so  or  it). 

Pronounce:  vwala  notr  ekol;  3!  veza  ncEV  ceir  dy  mate,  e  3a  ravjez 
a  doz  oc:r  da  lapre  midi.  set  yn  ba:k;  5ni  va  ^er^e  da  lar3a,  e  15  na 
ravje  la  poS  plen.  set  yn  bon  afeir;  3!  pais  tu  le  3u:r,  e  3a"parl  suva. 
kel  bo  3arde!_   de  rozjez  i  flooris,  e  l3  ni  ka^:j  do  3oli  buke. 

mari  e  kotait,  e  3a  la  siiiz  osi.    pje:r  e  malad,  me  sa  me:r  na  la  se  pu. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  41 


EXERCISE  XXIV 


I.  In  each  of  the  following  sentences  replace  a  clause 
or  an  adjective  by  le : 

Pierre  est  heureux,  et  nous  sommes  aussi  heureux. 

On  dit  qu'il  va  arriver  ce  soir,  mais  je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  va 
arriver  ce  soir. 

Ce  petit  gargon  va  tomber;  ne  pensez-vous  pas  qu'il  va  tomher? 

Marie  est  fort  studieuse  et  sa  sa?ur  est  aussi  studieuse. 

C'est  lui  qui  sera  (will  be)  nomine;  on  dit  partout  que  c'est  lui 
qui  sera  nomme. 

II.  Translate: 

1.   You  are  happy,  and  I  am  too. 

2."  People  say  so,  but  I  don't  believe  it. 

3.  He  is  studious,  but  his  brother  is  not. 

4.  Roses  (les  roses)  are  beautiful;  \dolets  are  too. 

5.  He  is  going  to  come  back,  but  don't  tell  his  sister  (a  s^ 
scEur). 

63.    Ce  livre  est  &  moi;  donnez-/e-moi;  ne  le  leur  donnez 
pas! 
Cette  plume  est  a  Marie,  donnez-/a-lui ;  ne  me  la  donnez  pas! 
Marie  desire  ces  fraises;  veuillez  les  lui  porter! 
Elle  va  vom  en  donner;  donnez-nous-en  aussi. 

Wheji_two  objective  conjunctive  personal  pronouns  are 
used  with  a  verb,  the  one  nearer  the  verb  must  be  of  the 
third  person. 

When  both  pronouns  are  of  the  third  person,  the  direct 
object  precedes  the  indirect;  except  that  se  precedes  any 
other  pronoun. 

Pronmmce:  pjeir  et  oere,  e  nu  la  somz  osi.  5  di  kil  va  arive  S9 
swair,  me  39  na  la  krwa  pa.  sa  pati  garso  va  tobe;  na  la  pase  vu  pa? 
mari  e  fair  stydjoiz,  e  sa  sce:r  let  osi.    se  Iqi  ki  sara  name;  5  la  di  partu. 

sa  li:vr  et  a  mwa;  done  la  moi;  na  la  loeir  done  pa.  set  plym  et  a 
mari;  done  la  liji,  na  ma  la  done  pa.  mari  deziir  se  frez;  voeje  le  \\\\ 
parte,    el  va  vuz  a  done;  done  nuz  a  osi. 


42  PRONOUNS 

64.  Pourquoi  m'envoyez-vous  a  lui?  Je  ne  vous 
envoie  pas  a  lui.  If  the  direct  object  is  a  personal  pro- 
noun other  than  le,  la,  or  les,  any  indirect  object,  except 
en  or  y,  is  expressed  by  a  and  a  disjunctive.  What  is  the 
difference  between  je  vais  vous  presenter  a  elle  and  je 
vais  vous  la  presenter? 

EXERCISE   XXV 

Translate  : 

1.  Who  sends  you  to  me? 

2.  Let  us  introduce  ourselves  to  her. 

3.  Is  he  going  to  show  himseK  to  them? 

65.  Jean  desire  de  I'encre,  veuillez  lui  en  donner. 
II  n'y  en  a  pas  dans  I'encrier. 

Guillaume  va  au  concert;  men  pere  la'y  mene  aussi. 
Menez-les-t/;  et  s'ils  desirent  des  oranges,  achetez-leur-en! 

En  and  y  follow  objective  personal  pronouns;  and  if 
used  together  en  follow^s  y. 

EXERCISE  XXVI 

(a)  Complete  the  following  sentences  by  inserting  the 
complements  indicated : 

Des  oranges;  mon  pere  va  acheter  {them  for  me). 

Une  plume;  je  donne  (it  to  yoxi). 

Du  pain;  ma  mere  donne  sou  vent  {some  to  them). 

Le  concert;  veuillez  mener  {us  there). 

Les  livres;  je  vais  montrer  {them  to  her). 

Pronounce:  purkwa  mavwaje  vuz  a  Iqi?  33  na  vuz  avwa  paz  a  Iqi. 

3a  desiir  da  Ia:kr,  voeje  Iqi  5  dane.  il  nja  na  pa  da  lakrje.  gijoim 
va  o  k5se:r;  m5  pe:r  mi  men  osi.  mane  lez  i;  e  sil  desi:r  dez  ora:3, 
a^ate  loeir  a. 

dez  ora:3;  m5  pe:r  va  vu  lez  a^ate.  yn  plym;  5a  la  Iqi  don.  dy  pe; 
ma  meir  ma  don  suva.  la  koseir;  voeje  lez  i  mane,  le  liivr;  33  ve  vu 
le  motre. 


POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS 


43 


(6)  Change  the  following  sentences,  giving  successively 
all  possible  personal  pronouns  as  direct  objects  in  the  first 
four  and  as  indirect  objects  in  the  last  four;  repeat,  mak- 
ing sentences  negative: 

1.  II  me  renvoie  a  elle.  5.  II  me  les  prete. 

2.  II  m'eii  chasse.  6.  II  me  la  donne. 

3.  II  ?» 'y  aper§oit.  7.  Parlez-r?i'en ! 

4.  Donnez-m'en  bien  vite !  8.  On  me  I'a  dit. 


POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS 


66.  To  take 
sessive  adjective 
may  use 

for  mon  crayon, 
for  ma  plume, 
for  ton  pere, 
for  ta  mere, 
for  son  oncle, 
for  sa  tante, 
for  notre  jardin, 
for  notre  maison, 
for  votre  cheval, 
forvotre  regie, 
for  leur  jeu, 
for  leur  poupee. 


the  place  of  a  noun  preceded  by  a  pos- 
we  use  possessive  pronouns.     Thus  we 


le  mien 
la  mienne 
le  tien 
la  tienne 
le  sien 
la  sienne 
le  notre 
la  notre 
le  votre 
la  votre 
le  leur 
la  leur 


for  mes  crayons, 
for  mes  plumes, 
for  tes  freres, 
for  tes  soeurs, 
for  ses  oncles, 
for  ses  tantes, 
for  nos  jardins, 
for  nos  maisons, 
for  vos  chevaux, 
for  vos  regies, 
for  leurs  jeux, 
for  leurs  poupee s. 


les  miens 
les  miennes 
les  tiens 
les  tiennes 
les  siens 
les  siennes 
les  notres 
les  notres 
les  votres 
les  votres 
les  leurs 
les  leurs 


Pronounce:  il  ma  ravwa  a  el.  il  ma  ^as.  il  mi  aperswa.  done  ma 
bje  vit.    il  mo  le  pret.    il  ma  la  don.    parle  ma.     5  ma  la  di. 

m5  krejo,  la  mje,  me  krejS,  le  mje;  ma  plym,  la  mjen,  me  plym,  le 
mjen;  to  pe:r,  la  tje,  te  freir,  le  tje;  ta  me:r,  la  tjen,  te  soe:r;  le  tjen; 
son  a:kl,  la  sje,  sez  o:kl,  le  sje;  sa  ta:t,  la  sjen,  se  ta:t,  le  sjen;  notr 
Sarde,  la  no:tr,  no  3arde,  le  noitr;  notr  mez5,  la  no:tr,  no  mezo,  le 
no:tr;  votr  Saval,  la  vo:tr,  vo  Ssvo,  le  voitr;  votr  regl,  la  voitr,  vo  regl, 
le  vo:tr,  loer  30,  la  Iceir,  la?r  30,  le  la^:r;  la^r  pupe,  la  loe:r,  loer  pupe,  le 
Ineir. 


44  PRONOUNS 

Pronouns  must  have  the  gender  and  number  of  the 
nouns  for  which  they  stand.  In  comparing  possessive  ad- 
jectives and  pronouns,  note: 

1.  Adjectives  are  used  ivith  nouns,  pronouns  instead  of 
nouns. 

2.  Adjectives  are  unstressed,  pronouns ^re  stressed. 

3.  Adjectives  are  short,  pronouns  generally  longer 
forms. 

4.  The  definite  article  is  always  used  with  the  pronoun, 
but  never  with  the  adjective. 


EXERCISE  XXVII 

I.  Replace  possessive  adjectives  and  nouns  by  pronouns : 

Mes  amis,  tes  amis,  et  leurs  amis. 

Vos  plumes,  ses  plumes,  et  mes  plumes. 

Ton  crayon,  son  crayon,  et  men  crayon. 

Ta  mere,  sa  mere,  et  leur  mere. 

Nos  chevaux,  ses  chevaux,  et  vos  chevaux. 

II.  Translate  into  French: 

My  house;  yours,  his,  hers,  theirs,  ours. 
Her  garden;  his,  mine,  yours,  ours,  theirs. 
Your  books;  mine,  hers,  his,  ours,  theirs. 
Their  roses;  his,  ours,  theirs,  hers,  yours. 
My  father  and  hers;  his  mother  and  mine. 
Your  cousins  and  ours:  his  sister  and  theirs. 


Pronounce:  mez  ami,  tez  ami^e  loerz  ami;  vo  plym,  se  plym,  e  me 
plym;  to  krej5,  s3  kreja,  e  m5  Krej5;  ta  me:r,  sa  meir,  e  l.oer  me:r;  no 
Savo,  se  Savo,  et  vo  Savo. 


DEMONSTRATIVES  45 


DEMONSTRATIVES 

67.     Demonstratives,  like  possess! ves,  may  be 
Adjectives,  used  with  a  noun:  ce,  cet,  cette,  ces;  or 
Pronouns,  used  instead  of  a  noun:  ce,  ceci,  cela,  celui,  etc. 

Cest  elle.  Ce  ne  sont  pas  eux.  Ce  doit  etre  lui.  Ce  me 
semble.  Tout  ce  qui  reluit  n'est  pas  or.  Je  sais  bien  ce 
que  vous  pensez.  Ceci  (this,  emphatic)  est  pour  lui,  cela  {that, 
emphatic)  est  pour  elle.  Voulez-vous  ceci  ou  cela?  Ce  sont 
la  mes  joyaux. 

The  uninflected  pronoun  ce,  or  one  of  its  stressed  forms, 
ceci,  cela,  must  be  used  when  no  particular  noun  is  in 
mind  to  determine  gender  and  number. 

Whenever  stress  is  required,  by  contrast,  position,  etc., 
ceci,  cela,  ce  (etre)  la,  will  be  used. 

The  pronoun  ce  is  unstressed,  invariable  (but  c'  before 
a  vowel),  and  either  subject  of  a  verb  or  antecedent  of  a 
relative  pronoun,  as  ce  qui,  ce  que,  ce  dent,  ce  a  quel. 
The  only  verbs  regularly  used  with  ce  are  etre,  sembler, 
or  a  verb  like  doit  or  peut  governing  etre. 

What,  meaning  that  which,  is  ce+a  relative:  ce  qui, 
ce  que,  etc. 

EXERCISE  XXVm 

Change  the  following  sentences,  and  begin  each  with  a 
demonstrative  pronoun,  e.g.  ce  livre  est  a  moi  =  c'est  men 
livre.     Which  form  stresses  the  possessor? 

Pronounce:  sa,  set,  set,  se;  sa,  sasi,  sala,  salqi.  set  el,  sa  na  s5  paz 
0.  sa  dwat  e:tr  Iqi.  sa  ma  sa:bl.  tu  ski  ralqi  ne  paz  o:r.  33  se  bje 
ska  vu  pase.  sasi  e  pur  \\\\,  sala  e  pur  el.  vule  vu  sasi  u  sala?  sa  s5 
la  me  3wajo. 

sa  liivr  et  a  mwa;  se  mo  liivr. 


46  PRONOUNS 

Cette  plume  est  a  lui.  Ces  livres  sont  a  toi. 

Ce  chien  est  a  elle.  Ces  billes  sont  a  nous. 

Ce  chapeau  est  a  elle.  Cette  maison  est  a  elles. 

Ces  chapeaux  sont  a  vous.  Ce  jardin  est  a  eux. 

Repeat,  making  sentences  (a)  negative,  (h)  interrogative. 

68.  Void  deux  beaux  livres,  voulez-vous  celui-ci  ou  celui- 
la?  Quelles  belles  roses!  Celle-ci  est  rouge,  celle-la  est 
blanche.  Voyez-vous  ces  enfants?  Ceux  qui  jouent  aux 
billes  sont  mes  cousins,  ceux  qui  courent  sont  mes  neveux. 
Tous  ces  devoirs  sont  bien  faits,  mais  celui  de  Jean  est  mieux 
ecrit  que  celui  de  Marie. 

Forms  of  the  inflected  pronoun,  celui,  not  the  unin- 
flected  ce,  ceci,  or  cela,  are  commonly  used  to  replace  a 
particular  noun  that  has  been  already  expressed  or  is 
about  to  follow  in  a  de-phrase.  The  principle  is  that  a 
noun  clearly  in  mind  so  impresses  its  gender  and  number 
as  to  require  an  inflected  pronoun  to  replace  it.  However, 
as  subject  of  etre,  Avith  predicate  noun,  ce  is  used:  qui  est 
ce  monsieur?    C'est  men  ami  X. 

69.  Ce  mouchoir-d  est  plus  cher  que  celui-/a. 

Cette  dame-d  s'appelle  Alice,  celle-/a  s'appelle  Marie. 

The  distinction  made  in  English  by  having  two  demon- 
stratives, this  and  that,  is  expressed  in  French  by  affixing 
-ci  or  -la  to  nouns  or  pronouns  used  with  strong  demon- 
strative force,  where  contrast  or  distinctive  emphasis  is 
required. 

Pronounce:  set  plym  et  a  Iqi;  sa  5je  et  a  el;  sa  ^apo  et  a  el;  se  ^apo 
s5t  a  vu;  se  liivr  sot  a  twa;  se  bi:j  s5t  a  nu.  set  mez5  et  a  el;  sa 
sarde  et  a  0. 

vwasi  do  bo  liivr,  vule  vu  salqi  si  u  salqi  la?  kel  bel  ro:z !  sel  si 
e  ru!3,  sel  la  e  blai^.  vwaje  vu  sez  afa?  S0  ki  5U  o  bi:j  s3  me  kuze, 
80  ki  kuir  so  me  navo.  tu  se  davwair  so  bje  fe,  me  salqi  da  3a  e  mj0z 
ekri  ka  saliji  da  marl. 

sa  mu^wair  si  e  ply  $e:r  ka  salqi  la.  set  dam  si  sapel  alls,  sel  la  sapel 
mari. 


DEMONSTRATIVES  47 

70.  Note  that  a  form  of  celui  will  always  be  followed 
by  one  of  three  things: 

One  of  the  adverbs,  -ci  or  -la, 
A  phrase  beginning  with  de,  or 
A  relative  clause. 

71.  Of  two  objects,  -ci  indicates  the  nearer,  -la,  the 
more  remote;  therefore,  of  two  things  previously  men- 
tioned, -ci  means  the  latter,  -la,  the  former,  as,  voila  une 
rose  et  un  dahlia;  celui-ci  est  plus  gros,  mais  celle-la  a 
plus  de  parfum. 

EXERCISE  XXIX 

I.    Fill  blanks  with  demonstratives: 

1.   sont  deux  beaux  enfants;  mais  enf ant-la  est 

moins  beau  que qui  joue  a  la  balle. 

2.    sont  de  beaux  li\Tes;  je  crois  que  livres  sont 

chers,  et  je  pense  que la  sont  plus  chers  que ci. 

3.   est  une  belle  bague;  bague  est  plus  belle  que 

de  Marie. 

4.   sont  de  belles  roses;   roses-ci  sont  blanches, 

la  sont  jaunes;  et qui  sont  sur  la  table  sont  rouges. 

5. est  petit,  est  grand;  cependant  va  tuer 

;  car augmente  et diminue  ton  jours. 


Pronounce:  vwala  yn  ro:z  e  de  dalja,  salqi  si  e  ply  gro,  me  sal  la  a 
ply  da  parfce. 

S9  so  do  boz  afa,  me  set  afa  la  e  mwe  bo  ka  salqi  ki  su  a  la  bal. 
S9  so  da  bo  li:vr;  3a  krwa  ka  se  liivr  so  5e:r,  e  3a  pas  ka  sola  s5  ply 
lew  ka  S0si.  set  yn  bel  bag;  set  bag  e  ply  bel  ka  sel  da  mari.  sa  s5 
da  bel  roiz;  se  roiz  si  s5  blai^,  sel  la  so  30m;  e  sel  ki  so  syr  la  tabl  so 
ru!3.  sasi  e  pati,  sala  e  gra;  sapada  sasi  va  tqe  sala;  kar  sasi  ogma:t 
e  sala  diminy  tu3u:r. 


48  PRONOUNS 

II.   Translate: 

1.  This  and  that;  this  rose  and  that;  this  book  and  that;  this 
is  a  rose  and  that  is  a  book;  this  rose  and  that  book. 

2.  Do  you  wish  this  or  that?  Is  that  a  tree?  Is  this  a  flower? 
That  tree  is  an  oak.  That  is  not  an  elm.  That  flower  is  a  car- 
nation.   That  carnation  is  pretty. 

3.  That  ehn  is  taller  than  this  one;  that  carnation  is  white 
and  this  one  is  red;  that  pansy  is  prettier  than  this  one. 

4.  These  books  and  those;  these  pens  and  those;  these  pen- 
cils and  those;  these  houses  and  those. 

5.  Those  are  roses;  these  flowers  are  violets;  these  carna- 
tions are  prettier  than  Mary's;  those  pansies  are  not  so  pretty 
as  Louisa's. 

6.  Gowns,  handsome  gowns,  blue  gowns,  her  gowns,  yours, 
Mary's,  my  sister's,  hers,  the  red  (ones),  the  silk  ones,  the 
white  (ones),  the  cotton  ones,  the  ones  which  are  on  the  table. 

7.  Gloves,  handsome  gloves,  black  gloves,  her  gloves,  yours, 
Mary's,  my  sister's,  hers,  the  red  (ones),  the  silk  ones,  the  white 
(ones),  the  cotton  ones,  the  ones  which  are  on  the  table. 

RELATIVE   PRONOUNS 

72.  La  lettre" gm  est  arrivee.  L'homme  guevous  avez  vu. 
La  plume  avec  laquelle  vous  ecrivez.  Le  livre  auquelje  pense. 
Les  outils  avec  lesquels  nous  travaillons.  Les  fleurs  pour 
lesquelles  elle  vient.  Est-ce  vous  qui  dites  cela?  C'est  moi 
qui  le  dis.     Savez-vous  ce  que  c'est? 

A  relative  pronoun  joins  a  clause  to  a  noun  or  pronoun 
that  is  called  the  antecedent  of  the  relative.  A  relative 
is  equivalent  to  a  conjunction  and  a  personal  pronoun. 
It  has  the  gender,  number,  and  person  of  its  antecedent. 
What  are  the  antecedents  of  the  relatives  in  this  section? 

Pronounce:  la  letr  ki  et  arive;  bm  ka  vuz  ave  vy;  la  plym  avek 
lakel  vuz  ekrive;  h  li:vr  okel  39  pa:s;  kz  utiz  avek  lekel  nu  travajS; 
le  fla'ir  pur  lekcl  el  vje.  es  vu  ki  dit  sala?  se  mwa  ki  la  di.  save  vu 
ska  se? 


RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  '  49 

73.  The  relatives  most  used  are 

As  subject  of  the  verb,  qui. 

As  direct  object  of  the  verb,  or  as  predicate  nominative, 

que. 
After  prepositions,  lequel,  laquelle,  lesquels,  lesquelles. 

The  first  part  of  lequel  is  the  definite  article,  which  is 
inflected,  and  which  contracts  with  a  preceding  a  or  de, 
giving  the  forms  auquel,  auxquels,  auxquelles,  duquel, 
desquels,  desquelles.  The  second  part  of  lequel  is  the 
interrogative  adjective  quel,  meaning  which,  what. 

EXERCISE  XXX 

Translate : 

1.  The  child  who  is  crying;  the  child  whom  you  see;  the  book 
which  I  hold,  the  book  which  is  on  the  table,  the  book  in  which 
you  are  reading. 

2.  The  lady  who  is  singing;  the  lady  to  whom  we  listen  (ecou- 
ter,  with  direct  object);  the  pen  which  pleases  you;  the  pen 
which  you  desire;  the  pen  with  which  you  are  writing. 

3.  The  pupils  at  whom  you  are  looking  (regarder,  ivith  direct 
object);  the  pupils  who  are  looking  at  you;  the  pupils  with 
whom  he  is  playing;  the  flowers  which  smell  so  sweet  (bon,  in- 
variable, since  it  is  vsed  adverbially) ;  the  flowers  which  you  give 
them;  the  flowers  in  which  that  occurs  (se  trouve). 

74.  Lequel  may  be  used  in  any  construction,  but  be- 
ing longer  than  qui  and  que  is  not  used  as  subject  or  direct 
object  unless  needed  to  avoid  ambiguity,  as,  c'est  la 
soeur  de  notre  ami,  laquelle  vous  ne  connaissez  pas,  it  is 
our  friend's  sister,  whom  you  do  not  know.  If  que  were 
used,  it  would  refer  to  ami  and  not  to  soeur. 


50  PRONOUNS 

EXERCISE   XXXI 

Translate : 

1.  My  aunt's  dog,  which  is  always  barking. 

2.  My  uncle's  house,  which  is  very  ugly. 

3.  Mr.  Loubet's  hens,  which  the  neighbors  hate. 

4.  Mrs.  Duval's  cat,  which  has  only  three  feet. 

5.  Your  brother's  umbrella,  wliich  has  an  ivory  dog's  head 
(tete  de  chien  en  ivoire). 

75..  Dont,  whose,  of  whom,  of  which,  commonly  re- 
places de+lequel,  but  is  never  used  to  modify  the  object 
of  a  preposition.  It  always  begins  its  clause,  and  does 
not  change  the  word-order,  a  noun  which  is  direct  object 
following  the  verb,  as,  le  monsieur  dont  nous  parlons; 
un  enfant  dont  je  connais  le  pere;  la  fagon  dont  il  m'a 
repondu. 

EXERCISE  XXXn 

Translate : 

1.  Mr.  Thiers,  whose  brother  you  know. 

2.  Mr.  Carnot,  of  whom  we  are  speaking. 

3.  Mr.  Thiers,  of  whose  books  we  are  speaking. 

4.  Your  brother,  whose  handwriting  pleases  me  so  much. 

5.  Your  brother,  whose  head  I  see  yonder. 

6.  Your  brother,  with  whose  pen  I  am  writing. 

76.  In  expressions  of  time  and  place,  ou  is  often  used 
instead  of  auquel  or  dans  lequel:  le  jardin  oii  (dans  le- 
quel)  nous  jouons. 

77.  Referring  to  persons,  qui  may  be  used  as  the  ob- 
ject of  a  preposition:  le  monsieur  dont  (or  duquel,  or  de 
qui)  il  parle ;  la  dame  a  qui  (or  a  laquelle)  il  pense. 

Pronounce:  la  masjo  d5  nxyparlo.  de  nafa  d5  39  kone  la  peir.  la 
fas5  do  til  ma  repody.  ^ 

la  sarde  u  (da  lakel)  nu  3w5.  la  masjo  dot  (dykel,  da  ki)  il  pari, 
la  dam  a  ki  (a  lakel)  il  pais. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  51 

78.  Lequel  is  occasionally  used  as  an  adjective:  dix 
francs,  laquelle  somme ,  ten  francs,  which  sum . 

79.  The  relative  pronoun  quoi  is  disjunctive,  and 
used  only  after  an  indefinite  antecedent,  as,  ce  a  quoi  je 
pense;  voila  de  quoi  je  desire  vous  parler;  «Merci, 
monsieur !»    «I1  n'y  a  pas  de  quoi !» 

80.  Que  is  used  in  clauses  after  c'est  ...  to  replace 
any  complement,  indirect  as  well  as  direct:  c'est  de 
vous  que  je  parle,  i.e.  je  parle  de  vous,  que  =  de  vous; 
c'est  a  votre  frere  que  je  donne  ce  livre,  i.e.  je  donne  ce 
livre  a  votre  frere,  que  =  a  votre  frere;  ce  fut  un  grand 
jour  que  (fut)  celui  de  ma  premiere  commimion,  que  =  un 
grand  jour.  The  effect  of  the  c'est  .  .  .  que  construction 
is  to  bring  out  the  complement  with  great  emphasis. 


EXERCISE  XXXm 


Using 

the  c'est  .  .  .  qui,  c'est  .  . 

.  que 

construction. 

translate 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

I  say  so. 

I  am  speaking  of  her,  and  not  (non)  of  her  brother. 

I  bring  it  for  you. 

She  is  looking  for  you. 

She  is  looking  for  you. 

He  lives  in  that  house. 

7. 
8. 

They  desire  those  oranges. 
They  desire  those  oranges. 

Pronounce:  di  fra,  lakel  som. 

S8  a  kwa  30  pa:s.    vwala  da  kwa  39  deziir  vu  parle.    mersi,  masjo.. 
11  nja  pa  da  kwa. 

se  da  vu  ka  3a  pari;  set  a  voir  freir  ka  3a  don  sa  lisvr. 
sa  fyt  de  gra  3uir  ka  salyi  da  ma  pramjeir  komynjS. 


52  PRONOUNS 

EXERCISE  XXXIV 

I.     (a)  Distinguish  between 

Le  chien  qui  nous  regarde  and  Le  chien  que  nous  regardons. 
La  dame  qui  voit  M.  Duval  and  La  dame  que  voit  ]\L  Duval. 
La  bete  qui  vous  porte  and    La  bete  que  vous  portez. 

(6)  Fill  blanks  with  the  proper  ending: 

Mes  amis  que  je  cherch —  Mes  amis  qui  me  cherch—  " 

Le  monsieur  qui  vous  invit —  Le  monsieur  que  vous  invit — 

Ceux  que  nous  respect—  Ceux  qui  nous  respect— 

(c)  Fill  blanks  with  relative  pronouns : 

II  n'aime  ni  ceux  il  trompe  ni  ceux  le  trompent. 

Ceux vous  suivez  n'en  savent  pas  plus  que  ceux vous 

suivent.    Ce vous  pensez  m'interesse  beaucoup  plus  que  ce 

vous  dites.    Dites-moi  ce vous  amuse,  et  je  vais  vous 

dire  ce vous  etes.    Les  li\Tes nous  plaisent  sont  ceux 

nous  achetons.     L'homme  est  malhonnete  n'est  pas 

celui  il  faut  imiter.    Si  \131^  parlez  de  Jean  en  pensant  a 

]\Iarie,  celui vous  parlez  n'est  pas  celle  a vous  pensez. 

Assez  souvent  ce  nous  parlons  n'est  pas  ce  a  nous 

pensons.     Ce  monsieur   la-bas  est  celui  vous  cherchez. 

Cette  petite joue  la-bas  est  celle le  frere  est  malade. 


Pronounce:  h  $je  ki  nu  ragard;  la  Sje  ka  nu  ragardo.  la  dam  ki 
vwa  masJ0  dyval;  la  dam  ka  vwa  masjo  dyval.  la  be!t  ki  vu  port; 
la  be:t  ka  vu  porte. 

rnez  ami  ka  5a  ^erS;  mez  ami  ki  ma  Ser^.  la  masjo  ki  y\iz  evit;  la 
masj0  ka  vuz  evite.    so  ka  nu  respektS;  S0  ki  nu  respekt. 

il  nem  ni  so  kil  tr5:p  ni  so  ki  la  tr6:p.  so  ka  vu  sqive  nd  sa:v  pa 
ply  ka  so  ki  vu  sqiiv.  sa  ka  vu  pase  meteres  boku  ply  ka  ska  vu  dit. 
dit  mwa  ski  vuz  amy:z,  e  3a  ve  vu  di:r  ska  vuz  et.  le  li:vr  ki  nu 
ple:z  s5  so  ka  nuz  a^ato.  lorn  ki  e  malonet  ne  pa  .salqi  kil  fot  imite. 
si  vu  parle  da  3a  a  pasa  ta  mari,  selqi  do  \'u  parle  ne  pa  sel  a  ki  vu 
pase.  ase  suva  sa  d5  nu  parlo  ne  pa  sa  a  kwa  nu  pas5.  sa  masjo  la 
ba  e  salqi  ka  vu  Serje.    set  patit  ki  3U  la  ba  e  sel  do  la  freir  e  malad. 


INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS  53 

Ce  petit vous  voyez  est  celui je  vous  parle.    Celle • 

chante  est  la  dame vous  trouvez  la  voix  si  belle.    Pretez- 

leur  les  outils ils  ont  besoin.    Ce  pauvre  homme  n'a  j5as  de 

vivre.    «Merci,  monsieur!))    (dl  n'y  a  pa^  de !))    II  ne 

salt  pas  de il  se  mele. 

II.    Translate  into  French: 

The  bed  on  which  he  sleeps;  the  boy  of  whom  we  are  think- 
ing; the  la(|y  of  whom  they  are  speaking;  the  book  in  which  she 
is  reading;  the  oranges  of  which  you  are  thinking;  the  roses  of 
which  he  is  speaking. 


INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS 

81.  Qui  dit  cela?  Qui  regardez-vous?  De  qui  parle-t-il? 
Qu'est-ce  qui  fait  ce  bruit?  Que  veut-il?  De  quoi  parle- 
t-elle? 

The  uninflected  interrogative  pronouns  are 

(a)  Referring  to  persons,  sometimes  to  animals, 
Qui,  used  in  all  constructions. 

(6)  Referring  to  things, 
Qu'est-ce  qui,  as  subject  of  the  verb, 
Que,  direct  object  of  a  verb  or  predicate  nominative, 
Quoi,  disjunctive  or  stressed. 


Pro7iounce:  sa  pati  ka  vu  vwaje  e  selqi  d5  3a  vii  pari,  sel  ki  5a:t  e 
la  dam  do  vu  truve  la  vwa  si  bel.  prete  loe:r  lez  uti  dot  ilz  5  bozwe. 
S9  po:vr  om  na  pa  do  kwa  vi:vr.  mersi,  mosjo.  il  nja  pa  do  kwa.  il 
no  se  pa  da  kwa  il  sa  meil. 

ki  di  sala?  ki  ragarde  vu?  da  ki  pari  til?  keski  fe  so  brqi?  ka 
V0t  il?    do  kwa  pari  tel? 


54  PRONOUNS 

EXERCISE  XXXV 

(a)  Fill  blanks  with  interrogative  pronouns: 

vive?     dit-il?     remue  la-bas?     voyez- 

vous?    va  la?    nous  regarde?    regardons-nous? 

vous  ecoute?    ecoutez-vous?     De  parlez-vous? 

A pensez-vous?    A  s'occupe-t-il?    Pour appor- 

tez-vous  cette  poupee?    vous  rend  si  triste? 

(h)  Translate: 

1.  Wlio  does  it?  10.  Who  prevents  j-ou  from  do- 

2.  What  does  it?  ing  (de  faire)  that? 

3.  What  do  you  see?  11.  What   prevents   you   from 

4.  Whom  do  you  see?  doing  that? 

5.  Who  sees  her?  12.  What     are     you      talking 

6.  Whom  does  she  see?  about? 

7.  What  does  she  see?  13.  Of  wliom  are  you  speaking? 

8.  Who  is  running  yonder?  14.  What  are  you  thinking  of? 

9.  What  is  running  j'onder?  15.  Of  wliom  are  you  thinking? 

82.  Lequel  de  ces  livres  voulez-vous? 
Lesquels  de  ces  crayons  sont  a  vous? 
Laquelle  de  ces  cartes  est  la  plus  belle? 
«Veuillez  m'apporter  ces  plumes.))     ((LesqueUes?» 

Wlien  a  particular  substantive  is  in  mind,  either  already 
used  or  immediately  following  in  a  phrase  beginning  with 
de,  an  interrogative  pronoun  referring  thereto  must  be 
the  inflected  pronoun  lequel.  The  first  syllable  contracts 
with  a  or  de,  giving  auquel,  duquel,  desquels,  etc. 

Pronounce:  ki  vi:v?  ka  ditil?  keski  ramy  la  bo?  ki  vwaje  vu? 
ki  va  la?  ki  nu  rogard?  ka  ragardS  nu?  ki  vuz  ekut?  ki  ekute  vu? 
da  kwa  parle  vu?  a  kwa  pase  vu?  a  kwa  sokyio  til?  pur  ki  aporte 
vu  set  pupe?    keski  vu  ra  si  trist? 

lakel  da  se  liivr  vule  vu?  lekel  da  se  krejo  s5t  a  vu?  lakel  da  ss 
kart  c  la  ply  bel?    voeje  maporte  se  plym.    lekel? 


INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS  55 

EXERCISE   XXXVI 

I.     (a)  Fill  blanks  with  interrogative  pronouns: 

de  ces  deux  plumes  voulez-vous?    de  ces  messieurs 

est  son  pere?    sont  ses  oncles?    de  ces  dames  est  rotre 

mere?    sont  vos  tantes?    de  ces  deux  dessins  donnez- 

vous  la  preference?    de  ces  deux  crayons  avez-vous  besoin? 

(6)  Ask,  in  French,  questions  to  be  answered  by  the 
words  in  italics : 

I.  Pierre  lit.  2.  II  lit  un  livre.  3.  II  lit  le  livre  de  Paul. 
4.  Marie  est  assise.  5.  Elle  est  assise  sur  une  chaise.  6.  L'arbre 
tombe.  7.  II  tombe  pres  de  la  maison.  8.  Henri  pense.  9.  II 
pense  a  sa  mere.  10.  II  pense  a  ses  jouets.  11.  Ce  jardin  est  a 
7non  oncle.  12.  La  pomme  est  rouge.  13.  Cet  arhre  porte  des 
noix. 

II.  Translate: 

1.  Which  one  of  those  pens  do  you  wish? 

2.  Of  which  ones  are  you  speaking? 

3.  Look  at  those  men  yonder !    Which  ones? 

4.  To  which  one  of  those  cities  is  he  going? 

5.  Of  which  is  he  speaking? 

6.  Of  which  is  he  tliinking? 

7.  I  like  that  picture.    Which  one? 

8.  Of  which  one  are  you  thinking? 

9.  Of  which  one  are  you  speaking? 

10.   Please  close  the  window !    Wliich  one? 

83.   Qui  est-ce  qui  pleure?    Qui  est-ce  que  vous  appelez? 
Qu'est-ce  qu'il  dit?     Qu'est-ce  (que  c'est)  que  cela 

(ga)? 

Pronounce:  pje:r  li.  il  ht  de  h:vr.  il  H  la  U:vr  da  pol.  marl  et 
asi:z.  el  et  asi:z  syr  yn  5e:z.  larbr  t5:b.  il  tob  pre  da  la  mezo.  ari 
pa:s.  il  pciis  a  sa  me:r.  il  pais  a  se  3we.  sa  sarde  et  a  mo  noikl.  la 
pom  e  ru:3.     set  arbr  port  de  nwa. 

ki  es  ki  ploeir?    ki  es  ka  vuz  apale?    keskil  di?    kesk9sekas(l)a? 


56  PRONOUNS 

In  conversation  periphrastic  forms  are  common  instead 
of  the  simpler  qui  or  que.  In  these,  the  last  qui  or  que  is 
a  relative  pronoun;  the  first  is  an  interrogative  predicate 
nominative;  any  intermediate  que  is  a  relative  predicate 
nominative;  ce  is  subject  of  etre  and  antecedent  of  the 
relative. 

INDEFINITES 

84.  A  considerable  class  of  words,  some  of  them  pro- 
nouns and  some  adjectives  or  adverbs,  refer  to  no  clearly 
defined  person  or  thing,  and  so  are  called  indefinites. 
They  can  best  be  learned  from  text  or  dictionary.  The 
most  common  are: 

85.  On.  Third  singular  subject  pronoun,  translated  7, 
ive,  you,  they,  people,  folks,  someone,  etc.  Used  whenever 
the  speaker  does  not  care  to  specify  definitely  who  acts; 
especially  frequent  where  English  uses  the  passive  voice: 
on  dit,  it  is  said,  they  say,  people  say;  on  parle  frangais, 
French  is  spoken.  Its  corresponding  object-pronoun  is 
vous,  cela  vous  degoute,  that  disgusts  one. 

The  form  Ton  is  commonly  used  instead  of  on  after  et, 
ou,  si,  que,  unless  the  next  word  begins  ^vith  1,  as,  on 
fera  ce  que  Ton  voudra,  they  will  do  what  they  please. 


Translate : 


EXERCISE  XXXVn 

1.  English  is  spoken. 

2.  She  is  often  seen. 

3.  People  don't  say  that. 

4.  That  isn't  done  in  France. 


Pronounce:  5  di.    5  pari  fmse.    sola  vu  dcgut.    5  fora  sko  15  \'udra. 


INDEFINITES  ,  57 

5.  People  are  looking  at  you. 

6.  Those  things  vex  (agacer)  one. 

7.  IVIay  one  enter? 

8.  That  is  done  everj-  day  in  the  United  States. 

86.  Quelque,  so7ne;  the  plural  quelques  and  the 
plural  pronouns  quelques-uns,  quelques-unes  are  often 
translated  a  few.  Note  that  quelque  is  affirmative;  the 
negatives  aucun,  pas  un,  nul,  meaning  no,  usually  have 
pas  de  as  their  plural.  Compounds  of  quelque  are  quel- 
qu'un,  someone,  with  its  negative  ne  .  .  .  personne ;  quelque 
chose,  something,  negative  ne  .  .  .  rien;  quelquefois,  some- 
times, negative  ne  .  .  .  jamais.  As  a  pronoun  personne 
is  masculine:  personne  n'est  plus  adroit  que  lui. 

87.  The  indefinite  adjective  chaque,  each,  gives  pro- 
noun chacun. 

The  (reflexive)  disjunctive  referring  to  the  indefinite 
subject  of  a  verb  is  soi,  as,  chacun  pense  a  soi.  In  modern 
French  it  is  used  only  of  an  indefinite  or  general  ante- 
cedent: chacun  travaille  pour  soi,  [Jean  travaille  pour 
lui(-meme)];  il  ne  faut  pas  trop  parler  de  soi,  one  should 
not  speak  too  much  about  himself,  [Marie  parle  trop  d'elle 
(-meme)]. 

88.  The  reciprocal  pronouns  I'un  and  I'autre  are  used 
together  in  many  elliptical  expressions,  I'lm  being  the  sub- 
ject and  I'autre  the  complement  of  an  omitted  verb.  lis 
se  regardent  I'un  (regarde)  I'autre.  L'un  et  I'autre  (both), 
I'un  ou  I'autre,  ni  l'un  ni  I'autre,  l'un  (de,  a,  pour,  etc.) 


Pronounce:  ^akde  pais  a  swa.  ^akce  travaij  pur  swa.  5a  travarj 
pur  Iqi  (me:m).  il  na  fo  pa  tro  parle  da  swa.  mari  pari  tro  del 
(meim.) 

il  sa  regard  Ide  lotr.    Ide  ne  lotr;  Ide  nu  lotr;  ni  Ide  ni  lotr. 


58  PRONOUNS 

I'autre  are  frequent  combinations  with  obvious  mean- 
ings. Both  pronouns  are  plural  if  the  sense  requires,  thus 
I'un  I'autre,  each  other,  would  be  used  of  two,  while  les 
uns  les  autres,  one  another,  would  be  used  where  each 
group  contains  more  than  one. 

89.     Other  indefinites  are 

autre,  other  certain,  certain 

autrui,  others  different,  different 

divers,  various  maint,  many  (a) 

meme,  self,  same,  very,  even  plusieurs  (invariable),  several 

quelconque,  whatever  tel,  such 

tout  (m.  plu.  tous),  all,  every 

(a)  Autre  means  other  in  the  sense  of  different;  other  in 
the  sense  of  more  is  encore :  encore  une  orange,  one  more 
orange;  encore  des  plaintes,  more  complaints;  encore  trois 
plumes,  three  more  -pens. 

In  connection  with  nous  or  vous,  as,  nous  autres  Ame- 
ricains,  we  Americans,  vous  autres  Franfais,  you  French- 
men, autre  is  used  simply  to  emphasize  a  distinction,  and 
is  not  translated. 

(6)  Autrui  is  used  only  as  the  complement  of  a  verb 
or  of  a  preposition:  il  faut  aimer  autrui,  we  should  love 
others;  le  bien  d'autrui,  other  people's  property. 

(c)  Meme,  used  adverbially,  is  invariable,  as,  les  en- 
fants  meme,  the  very  children  or  even  the  children;  other- 
wise it  agrees,  as  adjective  or  pronoun,  ^\ith  its  substan- 
tive: eux-memes,  themselves;  les  memes  enfants,  the  same 
children;  ce  sont  les  memes,  they  are  the  same  ones. 

Pronounce:  ako:r  >ti  orais;  ako:r  de  ple:t;  ako:r  trwa  plym. 

nuz  otrz  amerike;  vuz  otr  f rd.se. 

il  fot  erne  otnii;  la  bje  dotrqi. 

lez  afa  me:m;  0  me:m;  le  meimz  afa;  sa  so  le  me:m. 


INDEFINITES  59 

(d)  Plusieurs  is  either  masculine  or  feminine:  plusieurs 
hommes  et  plu§ieurs  femmes. 

(e)  Quelconque  follows  its  noun:  un  livre  quelconque, 
any  book  whatever,  any  sort  of  hook. 

(/)  Unlike  the  English  word  such,  tel  has  the  usual  posi- 
tion of  an  adjective,  and  comes  after  the  article:  une  telle 
femme,  such  a  woman;  de  tels  hommes,  such  men.  It  has 
various  idiomatic  meanings:  monsieur  un  tel,  Mr.  So  and 
So;  tel  pere  tel  fils,  like  father,  like  son;  as  the  father,  so  is 
the  son;  tel  rit,  tel  pleure,  one  man  laughs,  another  cries; 
tel  rit  aujourd'hui  qui  pleurera  demain,  7nany  a  man 
laughs  to-day  irho  ivill  cry  to-morrotv;  je  le  prends  tel 
quel,  /  take  it  such  as  it  is. 

(g)  Tout  precedes  the  article:  tout  le  monde,  everybody; 
toute  la  ville,  the  whole  city;  tout  im  peuple,  a  whole  nation; 
tous  les  enfants,  all  the  children.  Tous,  when  a  pronoun, 
has  the  final  s  pronounced:  je  les  ai  tous  aimes,  /  have 
loved  them  all. 

As  a  substantive,  tout  means  all,  everything,  or  the  whole: 
tout  est  perdu ;  il  veut  tout ;  le  tout  est  plus  grand  qu'une 
partie  quelconque,  the  whole  is  greater  than  any  portion 
whatever. 

EXERCISE  XXXVra 

Translate : 
I.     1.   II  commence  tout  sans  rien  achever. 

2.  II  chancelle  quelquefois,  mais  ne  tombe  jamais. 

3.  Quelques-uns  sent  blesses,  mais  personne  n'est  mort. 

4.  Avez-vous  vu  quelquechose?  —  Rien ! 

Pronounce:  plyzjopirz  omz  e  plyzjoDir  fam. 
de  li:vr  kelkok. 

yn  tel  fam;  da  telz  am;  m9SJ0  de  tel;  tel  peir,  tel  fis;  tel  ri,  tel 
plce:r;  tel  rit  03urdiii  ki  ploerara  dame;  3a  la  pra  tel  kel. 

tu  lam5:d;  tut  la  vil;  tut  de  poepl;  tu  lez  afa.    3a  lez  e  tus  eme. 
tut  e  perdy;  il  vo  tu;  la  tut  e  ply  gra  kyn  parti  kelkSk. 


60  PRONOUNS 

5.  Chante-t-il  quelquefois?  —  Jamais! 

6.  lis  se  regardent  les  uns  les  autres. 

7.  lis  se  pardonnent  Fun  a  I'autre. 

8.  lis  disent  du  bien  I'un  de  I'autre. 

9.  Ces  pommes  me  coutent  cinq  sous  chacune. 

10.  Prenez  cette  plume,  j'911  ai  encore  trois. 

11.  Telle  est  sa  bonte  qu'il  se  fait  aimer  de  tous. 

12.  Pourquoi  portez-voiis  de  tels  souliers? 

II.  1.  One  can't  (ne  saurait)  thvijk  oLevervthing. 

2.  It  is  said  that  no  one  is  pei-fect.^*^*:     „ 

3.  AU  languages  are  spoken  here. 

4.  All  the  children  are  asking  for  another  story. 

5.  Tell  them  a  few  more,  Mary. 

6.  Here  are  a  few  apples;  does  anyone  wish  them? 

7.  He  has  no  money,  not  a  cent. 

8.  Nobody  speaks,  everybody  is  silent. 

9.  We  have  something  for  you,  but  we  have  nothing  for 
him  nor  for  her. 

10.  Be  sUent  at  times,  but  never  lie. 

11.  I  hear  someone  yonder,  but  I  see  no  one. 

12.  Every  man  looks  at  his  neighbor  without  saying  any- 
thing.    (Is  the  thought  affirmative  or  negative  here?) 

13.  They  speak  of  each  other,  they  think  of  each  other,  they 
work  for  each  other,  they  love  each  other. 

14.  Neither  one  likes  me,  and  I  detest  them  both. 

15.  Several  of  these  sentences  have  the  same  mistakes. 

16.  Don't  desire  other  people's  property  (le  bien). 

17.  Such  a  man,  such  a  woman,  and  such  children  are  not 
found  (rencontrer)  every  day. 

18.  Many  a  man  shouts,  "Each  for  himself! "  without  adding 
(a j outer)  "and  God  for  all!" 

19.  I  find  in  it  (y)  certain  things  which  displease  me. 

20.  They  have  different  talents  and  are  of  divers  opinions. 


PAST  AND   FUTURE   TENSES   OF   INDICATIVE     61 


CHAPTER  IV 

PAST  AND  FUTURE  TENSES  OF  THE 
INDICATIVE 

90.  In  French  the  past  tense  commonly  used  in  con- 
versation is  formed  by  using  a  past  participle  with  the 
present  tense  of  avoir  or  etre,  as,  j'ai  ecrit,  /  wrote,  je  suis 
venu,  /  came.  The  tense  is  called  the  'past  indefinite.  A 
tense  which,  like  the  past  indefinite,  is  formed  by  using 
a  past  participle  with  an  auxiliary  verb  (avoir  or  etre) 
is  called  a  corn-pound  tense.  Tenses  formed  of  a  single 
word,  like  the  French  present  indicative,  are  called  sim- 
ple tenses.  Since  the  past  indefinite  is  formed  Avith  the 
present  tense  of  the  auxiliary,  it  is  sometimes  called  the 
"compound  of  the  present."  The  past  indefinites  of 
rompre  and  of  aller  are 

j'ai  rompu      nous  avons  rompu  je  suis  alle  nous  sommes  alles 

tu  as  rompu   vous  avez  rompu  tu  es  alle  vous  etes  alles 

il  a  rompu       ils  ont  rompu  il  est  alle  ils  sont  alles 

elle  a  rompu  elles  ont  rompu  eUe  est  allee  elles  sont  allees 

91.  Marie  est  venue  avec  son  frere. 
lis  sont  alles  ^  la  poste. 

J'ai  vu  la  maison  que  Charles  a  achetee. 
.    J'ai  des  poires;  mon  pere  me  les  a  apportees. 
Elle  s'est  achete  des  gants. 
EUe  a  perdu  les  gants  qu'elle  s'est  achetes. 

Except  in  the  case  of  reflexive  verbs,  a  past  participle 
conjugated  with  etre  agrees  in  gender  and  number  with 
the  subject  of  the  verb, 

A  past  participle  conjugated  with  avoir,  and  the  past 
participle  of  a  reflexive  verb,  agree  in  gender  and  number 


62     PAST  AND   FUTURE   TENSES  OF   INDICATIVE 

with  a  preceding  direct  object.  If  there  is  no  direct  ob- 
ject, or  if  the  direct  ol)ject  follows  the  past  participle,  the 
past  participle  remains  invariable.  The  principle  seems 
to  be  that  a  substantive  so  impresses  its  gender  and  num- 
ber on  the  mind  as  to  cause  a  following  past  participle, 
directly  relating  to  it,  to  take  the  corresponding  form. 

In  Old  French  the  past  participle  of  reflexive  verbs 
agreed  with  the  sul:)ject,  and  the  agreement  in  cases  like 
elle  s'est  souvenue  de,  ils  se  sent  apergus  de,  ces  maisons 
se  sent  baties  rapidement  is  undoubtedly  a  survival  of  old 
usage  and  shows  agreement  with  the  subject. 

93.  Most  verbs  are  conjugated  with  avoir;  those  con- 
jugated wdth  etre  are 

1.  All  reflexive  verbs,  as,  s'asseoir,  se  laver  les  mains, 
etc. 

2.  Some  intransitive  verbs,  most  of  them  expressing 
change  of  place,  as,  aller,  arriver,  entrer,  sortir,  partir, 
monter,  descendre,  tomber,  rester;  venir  and  its  com- 
pounds; naitre  and  mourir. 

EXERCISE  XXXrX 

(a)  Write  the  past  indefinite  tense  of  the  verbs  just 
mentioned  as  conjugated  with  etre;  also  of  the  other 
verbs  in  §§  38,  44,  45,  and  48. 

(h)  Change  the  following  from  present  to  past  time, 
beginning,  ((Ce  matin  Pierre  s'est  leve  ...» 

Pierre  se  leve  de  bonne  heure,  il  va  a  la  fenetre,  il  remonte  le 
store,  il  regarde  le  ciel  et  il  ^coute  un  peu  les  oiseaux.  Puis  il 
verse  de  I'eau  dans  la  cuvette,  il  se  lave  les  mains  et  la  figure  et 
il  se  brosse  les  dents  et  les  cheveux.  II  s'habille  bien  vite,  il  met 
ses  souliers,  il  prend  son  chapeau,  il  descend  I'escalier  et  il  va 
faire  un  petit  tour  au  jardin  avant  de  dejeuner. 


IMPERFECT    INDICATIVE  63 

Repeat,  substituting  for  Pierre,  Marie,  je,  tu,  vous, 
nous. 

Repeat,  substituting  Paul  et  Henri  for  Pierre.  Repeat, 
substituting  Marie  et  Louise  for  Pierre. 

Note  that  certain  verbs  like  remonter  and  descendre 
are  sometimes  transitive  and  sometimes  intransitive. 
What  difference  does  this  make  in  the  auxiUary  verb? 

93.  Comme  elle  parlait,  Paixl  entra. 

As  she  was  speaking,  Paul  entered. 

Besides  the  past  indefinite,  to  express  action  in  past 
time  the  French  have  in  the  indicative  twa  simple  tenses, 
the  ini'perfect  (parlait)  and  the  past  definite  (entra). 

94.  The  imperfect  indicative  may  be  formed  by  chang- 
ing the  ending  -ant  of  the  present  participle  into  -ais, 
-ais,  -ait,  -ions,  -iez,  -aient.  Thus  the  imperfect  indica- 
tive of  finir,  present  participle  finissant,  is 

finissais  finissions 

finissais  finissiez 

finissait  finissaient 

The  imperfect  indicative  of  ecrire,  present  participle  ecri- 

vant,  is 

ecrivais  ecrivions 

ecrivais  ecriviez 

ecrivait  ecrivaient 

The  imperfect  indicative  is  used  to  express  a  past  action 
which  the  speaker  w-ishes  to  represent  as  customary,  re- 
peated, or  continuous.  It  paints  the  background  of  a 
word-picture,  describing  the  permanent  features  upon 
which  successive  events  stand  out.  It  has  been  called 
the  "descriptive  past."     It  shows  neither  the  beginning 


64     PAST  AND   FUTURE   TENSES  OF   INDICATIVE 

nor  the  end  of  the  action,  which  appears  as  in  a  frame 
that  hides  beginning  and  end,  showing  only  a  period  of 
continuance.  So  in  the  illustrative  sentence,  we  perceive 
neither  that  she  began  to  speak  nor  that  she  ceased 
speaking,  but  merely  her  continuing  to  speak  at  the  mo- 
ment when  Paul  entered.  It  provides  the  descriptive 
background  on  which  Paul's  entrance  stands  out  vividly. 


EXERCISE  XL 

Write  the  imperfect  indicative  of  the  verbs  in  §§  38, 
44,  45,  and  48. 

95.  The  only  common  verbs  whose  imperfect  indica- 
tives do  not  follow  the  rule  of  formation  are  avoir  and 
savoir.  Learn  the  first  singulars  as  avals  and  savais,  and 
write  the  tenses,  the  endings  being  always  regular. 

96.  The  first  singular  past  definite  is  the  fifth  princi- 
pal part.  In  -er  verbs  it  ends  in  -ai,  in  all  other  verbs, 
in  -s.  The  rest  of  the  tense  may  be  formed  by  substitu- 
ting successively  the  proper  endings,  the  endings  of  the 
tense  being 

in  -er  verbs,  -ai,  -as,  -a,  -ames,  -ates,  -erent; 
in  all  other  verbs,  -s,  -s,  -t,  -mes,  -tes,  -rent. 

Note  that  in  the  first  and  second  persons  plural,  the 
stressed  vowel  always  has  the  circumflex  accent. 


EXERCISE  XLI 

Write  the  past  definite  of  the  verbs  in  §§  38,  44,  45,  and 
48. 


PAST   DEFINITE  05 

97.  The  past  definite  is  distinctly  a  "book  tense," 
and  is  said  by  Paul  Passy  to  be  "absolutely  dead  in  the 
spoken  language  of  Northern  France."  ^  Conversation 
and  familiar  correspondence  use  instead  the  past  indef- 
inite. 

The  past  definite  expresses  a  past  act  entirely  performed 
within  the  period  of  past  time  that  we  are  considering. 
We  see  the  act  begun,  performed,  and  finished;  and  the 
tense  often  calls  especial  attention  to  the  beginning,  so 
much  so  that  it  has  been  called  an  inceptive  tense.  It  is 
also  called  the  "past  historical,"  and  the  "narrative 
past,"  from  its  frequent  use  in  historical  and  narrative 
passages.  It  is  also  called  the  "simple  past"  (passe  sim- 
ple) in  contrast  to  the  "compound  past"  (passe  compose) 
or  past  indefinite.  It  is  used  in  series,  where  each  verb 
is  a  Unk  in  the  chain  of  events  that  follow  in  succession, 
each  action  beginning  and  ending  before  the  next  begins. 
The  inceptive  force  appears  in  such  expressions  as 

H  eut,  he  received  or  obtained,  i.e.  began  to  have. 

n  sut,  he  learned,  i.e.  began  to  know. 

II  s'en  fut,  he  went  off,  i.e.  began  to  be  away. 

Note  the  "links"  in  such  a  series  as 

«I1  prit  son  parti,  touma  son  pied  droit  autour  de  son 
pied  gauche,  se  dressa  sur  son  pied  gauche,  et  etendit  le 
bras  .  .  .;  mais  au  moment  ou  il  touchait  le  mannequin, 
son  corps,  qui  n'avait  plus  qu'un  pied,  chancela  sur  I'esca- 
beau,  qui  n'en  avait  que  trois;  il  voulut  s'appuyer  au  man- 
nequin, perdit  I'equilibre,  et  tomba.»  (Victor  Hugo.)  "He 
made  his  decision,  twisted  his  right  foot  around  his  left,  rose  upon 

1  Didionnaire  phojietique  de  la  langue  frangaise,  by  H.  Michaelis 
and  P.  Passy.  Introduction,  p.  xiv. :  ((passe  defini;  temps  absolument 
mort  dans  le  langage  parle  des  Fran^ais  du  Nord.» 


66     PAST  AND   FUTURE  TENSES   OF   INDICATIVE 

his  left  foot,  and  stretched  out  his  arm  .  .  .;  hut  at  the  moment 
when  he  was  touching  the  dummy,  his  body,  poised  wpon  one  foot, 
tottered  wpon  the  three-legged  stool;  he  tried  to  support  himself  by 
the  dummy,  lost  his  balance,  and  fell." 

In  the  following  description  of  what  happened  at  the 
climax  of  the  Reign  of  Terror,  compare  the  imperfects 
that  tell  what  had  been  customary,  with  the  past  definites 
that  tell  what  began  to  be  the  state  of  affairs : 

«0n  observait  encore  quelques  formes;  on  les  supprima. 
Les  accuses  avaient  des  def enseurs ;  ils  n'en  eurent  plus. 
On  les  jugeait  individuellement ;  on  les  jugea  en  masse. 
Les  jures  avaient  pour  regie  de  leur  determination  la  loi; 
ils  n'eurent  plus  que  leur  conscience.))  (Mignet.)  "They 
still  were  accustomed  to  observe  certain  forms,  these  they  sup- 
pressed; the  accused  were  formerly  allowed  attorneys,  they  had  them 
no  longer;  they  had  been  tried  separately,  now  they  were  tried  in  a 
body;  the  juries  had  been  basing  their  decision  upon  the  law,  now 
they  consulted  only  their  own  consciences." 


EXERCISE  XLII 

(a)  Use  the  proper  tense,  imperfect  or  past  definite,  of 
the  verbs  indicated : 

Le  vaisseau  rOrion  (etre)  mouill^  pres  de  FArsenal.  Un 
matiji  la  foule  qui  le  {contempler)  {etre)  t6moin  d'un  accident. 
Un  gabier  (perdre)  Fequilibre.  On  le  (voir)  chanceler,  la  multi- 
tude {Jeter)  un  cri,  la  tete  {emporter)  le  corps,  I'homme  {tourner) 
autour  de  la  vergue,  {saisir)  au  passage  le  faux  marchepied  et 
y  {r ester)  suspendu.  La  mer  {etre)  au-dessous  de  lui  a  une  pro- 
fondeur  vertigineuse.  L'homme  {oiler)  et  {venir)  au  bout  du 
marchepied  comme  la  pierre  d'une  fronde. 

Aller  a  son  secours,  c'{etre)  courir  un  risque  effrayant.  Au- 
cun  des  matelots  n'{oser)  s'y  aventurer.     Cependant  le  mal- 


SIMPLE   PAST   TENSES   OF   INDICATIVE  67 

heureux  gabier  se  (fatiguer);  on  ne  (pouvoir)  voir  son  angoisse 
sur  son  visage,  mais  on  {distinguer)  dans  tons  ses  membres  son 
epuisement.  Ses  bras  se  (tordre).  II  ne  (crier)  pas  de  peur  de 
pcrdre  de  la  force.  On  n'{attendre)  plus  que  la  minute  oil  il 
lacherait  la  corde. 

Tout  a  coup,  on  (apercevoir)  un  honune  qui  (grimper)  dans  le 
greement  avec  I'agilite  d'un  chat-tigre.  Get  homme  (etre)  vetu 
de  rouge,  c'{etre)  un  forgat;  il  (avoir)  un  bonnet  vert,  c'(etre) 
un  forgat  a  vie.  Un  coup  de  vent  (emporter)  son  bonnet  et  (lais- 
ser)  voir  une  tete  toute  blanche;  ce  n'(etre)  pas  un  jeune  homme. 

En  un  chn  d'a^il  il  (etre)  sur  la  vergue.  II  s'(arreter)  quelques 
secondes  et  (paraltre)  la  mesurer  du  regard.  Ces  secondes, 
pendant  lesquelles  le  vent  (balancer)  le  gabier  a  I'extremite  d'un 
fil,  (sembler)  des  siecles  a  ceux  qui  (regarder).  Enfin  le  forgat 
(lever)  les  yeux  au  ciel  et  (faire)  un  pas  en  avant.  La  foule 
(respirer).  On  le  (voir)  parcourir  la  vergue  en  courant.  Parvenu 
a  la  pointe,  il  y  (attacker)  un  bout  de  la  corde  qu'il  (avoir)  appor- 
tee  et  (laisser)  pendre  I'autre  bout,  puis  il  se  (mettre)  a  descendre 
avec  les  mains  le  long  de  cette  corde,  et  alors,  au  lieu  d'un  homme 
suspendu  sur  le  gouffre,  on  en  (voir)  deux. 

(Adapted  from  Victor  Hugo.) 

Translation:  The  ship  Orion  was  at  anchor  near  the  Arsenal. 
One  morning  the  crowd  which  was  watching  it  witnessed  an  acci- 
dent. A  topman  lost  his  balance.  They  saw  him  totter,  the  crowd 
screamed,  his  head  overbalanced  liis  body,  the  man  swung  around 
the  yard,  seized  the  foot-rope  as  he  fell,  and  hung  there.  Below 
him,  at  a  dizzy  depth,  lay  the  sea.  Like  a  stone  in  a  shng,  the  man 
swung  back  and  forth,  at  the  end  of  the  foot-rope. 

To  go  to  his  assistance  meant  running  a  frightful,  risk.  Not  one 
of  the  .sailors  dared  venture.  Meanwhile  the  unlucky  topman  was 
growing  tired;  they  could  not  see  the  agony  on  his  face,  but  ex- 
haustion was  manifest  in  every  limb.  His  arms  twisted.  He  did 
not  shout  for  fear  of  losing  strength.  Men  looked  for  the  moment 
when  he  would  let  go  the  rope. 

Suddenly  a  man  was  seen  climbing  up  the  rigging  with  the  agility 
of  a  tiger-cat.  This  man  was  dressed  in  red,  he  was  a  convict;  he 
wore  a  green  cap,  he  was  in  for  life.  A  gust  blew  off  his  cap  and 
showed  a  head  quite  white;  he  was  not  a  young  man. 

In  a  twinkling  he  was  on  the  yard.  He  stopped  a  few  seconds, 
and  seemed  to  be  measuring  it  with  his  eye.    These  seconds,  during 


68     PAST  AND-  FUTURE   TENSES  OF   INDICATIVE 

which  the  wind  swayed  the  topman  at  the  end  of  his  thread,  seemed 
centuries  to  those  watching.  At  last  the  convict  looked  up  and 
took  a  step  forward.  The  crowd  breathed  again.  They  saw  him 
nni  along  the  yard.  Reaching  the  end,  he  made  fast  to  it  one  end 
of  the  rope  he  had  brought;  let  the  other  hang,  then  began  to  go 
dowTi  the  rope  hand  over  hand.  Then  instead  of  one  man,  two 
were  seen  hanging  over  the  abyss. 

(6)  Translate  into  French : 

A  poor  topman  was  climbing  into  the  rigging  when  he  lost  his 
balance  and  fell.  The  crowd  that  was  watching  him  uttered  a 
cry.  The  man  caught  the  foot-rope  as  he  passed  it,  but  he  had 
not  the  strength  to  pull  himself  up  (se  hisser)  as  far  as  the  yard. 
As  he  swung  back  and  forth  at  the  end  of  the  foot-rope,  a  con- 
vict seized  a  rope  and  in  a  twinkling  they  saw  him  on  the  yard. 
He  was  dressed  in  red;  he  had  a  green  cap;  people  recognized 
(reconnaitre)  that  he  was  a  life-convict;  For  a  few  seconds  he 
seemed  to  be  hesitating  (hesiter) ;  at  last  he  made  up  his  mind 
and  ran  along  the  yard.  The  unhappy  topman  was  getting 
tired;  he  was  not  screaming,  but  one  saw  his  agony  in  (sur)  his 
face.  The  convict  tied  his  rope  to  the  yard,  went  down  the  rope 
hand  over  hand,  securely  lashed  (amarrer  solidement)  the  top- 
man's  body,  got  up  again  (remonter)  on  the  yard,  hauled  (baler) 
the  sailor  up  (y),  seized  him  in  his  arms,  and  carried  him  to 
(dans)  the  cross-trees  (la  hune)  where  he  left  him  in  the  hands 
of  his  comrades. 

FUTURE  INDICATIVE 

98.   Je  lirai  ce  livre  demain. 

Quand  vous  y  arriverez,  vous  vous  coucherez  aussitot. 
S'il  arrive  ce  soir,  il  recevra  notre  lettre. 

The  future  tense  in  French  is  formed  by  adding  to  the 
infinitive  -ai,  -as,  -a,  -ons,  -ez,  -ont  (the  endings  of  the 
present  indicative  of  the  verb  avoir).  Verbs  in  -oir  ex- 
cept prevoir  and  pourvoir,  all  in  -re,  and  a  few  in  -ir  drop 
the  vowel  of  the  infinitive  ending. 


FUTURE  INDICATIVE  69 

Thus  the  first  singular  futures  of  donner,  finir,  devoir, 
and  dire  are  donnerai,  finirai,  devrai,  and  dirai.    Let  the 

pupil  complete  the  tense  in  each  case. 


EXERCISE  XLin 

(o)  Write  the  future  tense  of  recevoir,  parler,  rompre, 
mourir  (mourr-),  courir  (courr-),  boire,  ecrire,  vivre, 
mouvoir,  and  prendre. 

(6)  Translate,  giving  two  translations  for  the  English 
past  tense : 

1.  I  receive,  I  received  {two  ways);  I  was  receiving;  I  shall 
receive. 

2.  {Addressing  a  child)  You  are  speaking,  you  spoke,  you 
were  speaking,  you  will  speak. 

3.  He  is  breaking,  he  broke,  he  was  breaking,  he  will  break. 

4.  She  runs,  she  ran,  she  was  running,  she  will  run. 

5.  People  die,  they  died,  they  were  dying,  one  will  die. 

6.  We  drink,  we  drank,  we  were  drinking,  we  shall  drink. 

7.  You  write,  you  wrote,  you  were  writing,  you  wall  write. 

8.  They  take,  they  took,  they  were  taking,  they  will  take. 

99.  Dropping  the  vowel  of  the  infinitive  ending  some- 
times brings  together  consonants  that  do  not  blend  well, 
such  as  two  liquids  (1,  n,  r),  and  this  requires  further 
changes  in  the  stem.  Learn  the  first  singular  future  of 
aller,  irai;  asseoir,  assierai;  avoir  and  savoir,  aurai,  sau- 
rai ;  conquerir,  conquerrai ;  cueillir,  cueiilerai ;  envoyer  and 
voir,  enverrai,  verrai;  etre,  serai;  faire,  ferai;  pouvoir, 
pourrai;  [falloir],  valoir  and  vouloir,  [faudra],  vaudrai,  vou- 
drai;  tenir  and  venir,  tiendrai,  viendrai.  Write  the  com- 
plete tense  of  each  of  these  verbs.  Which  one  has  only 
the  third  person  singular? 


70     PAST  AND   FUTURE  TENSES  OF   INDICATIVE 

Adding  the  future  endings  to  certain  infinitives  in  -er 
gives  a  mute  e  in  both  penult  and  antepenult.  In  such 
cases,  to  avoid  two  successive  mute  syllables,  the  antepe- 
nult is  regularly  strengthened,  either  by  the  grave  accent, 
as  in  menerai,  gelerai,  acheterai,  or  by  doubling  the  fol- 
lowing consonant,  as  in  jetterai,  appellerai.  Write  the 
future  tense  of  each  of  these  verbs;  also  of  peler  (pel-), 
semer,  amener,  promener. 

100.  Des  qu'ils  arriveront,  nous  partirons. 

Quand  vous  viendrez  chez  nous,  nous  nous  amuse- 

rons  bien. 
S'il  pleut,  nous  n'irons  pas  chez  eux. 
Si  vous  voulez  y  aller,  j'irai  avec  vous. 

Subordinate  clauses  referring  to  future  time  take  the 
future  tense,  except  after  si,  meaning  if,  which  requires 
the  present  or  imperfect  indicative  (or  their  compound 
tenses). 

101.  Instead  of  the  future  tense,  the  present  indica- 
tive of  aller  with  a  dependent  infinitive  is  often  used  to 
express  action  in  the  immediate  future,  as,  elle  va  chan- 
ter, she  is  about  to  sing;  nous  aliens  partir,  we  are  just 
going  to  start. 

EXERCISE  XLIV 

(See  text  in  §  97) 

I.    Using  aller,  translate: 

1.  The  convict  will  fall  from  the  yard, 

2.  He  will  let  go  the  rope. 

3.  He  will  take  a  step  forward. 

4.  He  will  go  down  that  rope. 

5.  He  will  tie  it  to  the  yard. 


COMPOUND   TENSES  71 

II.    Translate: 

1.  When  the  topman  lets  go  the  rope,  he  will  fall  into  the  sea. 

2.  The  crowd  will  breathe  again  when  the  convict  takes  a 
step  forward. 

3.  As  soon  as  the  topman  loses  his  l^alance,  the  crowd  will 
scream. 

4.  As  soon  as  he  begins  to  go  down  you  will  see  two  men 
hanging  over  the  abyss. 

•5.   When  he  is  on  the  yard,  he  will  measure  it  with  his  eye. 

Repeat,  substituting  if  for  when  or  as  soon  as. 

COMPOUND   TENSES 

103.  For  every  simple  tense  there  is  a  corresponding 
compound  tense,  formed  by  using  the  simple  tense  of  an 
auxiliary  with  the  past  participle  of  the  verb.  We  have 
already  learned  the  past  indefinite,  formed  with  the  pres- 
ent tense  of  the  auxiliary.  From  the  other  tenses  of  the 
indicative  we  get 

Compound  of  the  imperfect,  the  pluperfect,  j 'avals  ete, 

j'etais  alle; 
Compound  of  the  past  definite,  the  past  anterior,  il  eut 

parle,  elle  fut  venue ; 
Compound  of  the  future,  the  future  anterior,  j'aurai  dit, 

je  serai  revenu. 

EXERCISE  XLV 

Write  the  pluperfect  tense  of  the  verbs  in  §  38;  the  past 
anterior  of  the  verbs  in  §  44;  the  future  anterior  of  the 
verbs  in  §  45. 

103.     II  lit  le  livre  que  son  pere  lui  a  donne. 

II  lisait  le  livre  que  son  pere  lui  avait  donne. 
II  lira  le  livre  que  son  pere  lui  aura  donne. 


72     PAST  AND   FUTURE   TENSES   OF   INDICATIVE 

The  compound  tenses  express  action  pre\dous  (anterior) 
to  the  time  expressed  by  the  corresponding  simple  tense. 
Thus  the  compound  of  the  present  expresses  action  pre- 
vious to  the  present,  at  the  present  time  entirely  com- 
pleted. So,  if  we  were  using  the  imperfect  to  tell  of 
what  was  happening  at  noon  yesterday,  the  compound 
of  the  imperfect  would  express  action  pre\aous  to  noon 
yesterday,  and  at  that  time  entirely  completed;  if  we 
use  the  future  tense  Avith  reference  to  noon  to-morrow, 
the  compound  of  the  future  will  express  action  previous 
to  noon  to-morrow,  action  which,  by  noon  to-morrow, 
will  have  been  entirely  completed. 

Since  the  compound  tenses  all  express  completed  action, 
action  continuing  at  the  time  in  mind  must  be  expressed 
by  a  simple  tense:  I  have  been  here  ten  minutes  {and  am  still 
here)  must  be  je  suis  id  depuis  dix  minutes,  or,  il  y  a 
(voila)  dix  minutes  que  je  suis  ici;  I  had  been  studijing  an 
hour,  imphdng  that  the  speaker  was  still  continuing  to 
study,  must  be  j'etudiais  depuis  line  heure,  or,  il  y  avait 
une  heure  que  j'etudiais. 

104.  The  compound  of  the  past  definite,  the  past  an- 
terior, is  but  little  used,  and  only 

(a)  after  an  adverb  of  time,  in  the  subordinate  clause 
of  a  complex  sentence, 

(b)  expressing  the  less  prominent  of  two  acts, 

(c)  when  the  main  verb  is  in  the  past  definite. 

Thus  in  the  sentence,  quand  Marie  fut  entree,  Jean 
ferma  la  porte,  the  important  statement  is  that  John 
closed  the  door,  Marie's  having  previously  entered  being 
mentioned  incidentally;  but  if  we  said  quand  Jean  ferma 
la  porte,  Marie  etait  entree  the  important  statement  would 
be  that  IVIarie  had  entered,  after  which  John  closed  the 


PASSIVE  VOICE  73 

door.  We  note  that  the  past  anterior  is  in  the  subordi- 
nate clause  introduced  by  the  adverb  of  time,  quand,  and 
that  the  main  verb  is  in  the  past  definite.  Unless  the 
three  conditions  specified  are  all  fulfilled,  the  compound 
of  a  past  tense  should  be  the  pluperfect  and  not  the  past 
anterior. 

EXERCISE  XLVI 

(See  text  in  §  97) 

Translate  : 

1.  When  he  had  made  his  decision,  he  rose  upon  his  riglit 
foot. 

2.  As  soon  as  he  had  stretched  out  his  hand,  he  lost  his 
balance. 

3.  The  crowd  had  been  watching  the  topman  for  five  minutes 
when  the  convict  climbed  up  into  the  rigging. 

4.  The  topman  had  been  swinging  back  and  forth  for  two 
minutes  when  the  convict  began  to  go  down  the  rope  hand  over 
hand. 

5.  We  have  been  studying  French  for  three  months. 

PASSIVE   VOICE 

105.  Passive  constructions  when  used  in  French  cor- 
respond exactly  to  similar  Enghsh  constructions,  the  aux- 
ihary  being  etre,  the  past  participle  agreeing  in  gender 
and  number  with  the  subject  of  the  verb,  and  the  agent 
being  introduced  by  par  or  de.  Par  is  used  commonly 
with  the  agent  of  a  material  act,  and  de  with  the  agent  of 
mental  action:  elle  est  aimee  de  ses  parents;  ils  furent 
vaincus  par  leurs  ennemis. 

Formerly  de  was  more  generally  used,  and  it  still  ap- 
pears where  the  agency  is  expressed  rather  as  incidental 
or  descriptive  than  as  having  definite  purpose,  as,  suivi 


74     PAST  AND   FUTURE   TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE 

de  ses  trois  enfants;  un  papier  signe  du  roi;  un  arbuste 
battu  des  vents  de  mer;  brule  du  soleil;  autant  vaut  etre 
mordu  du  chien  que  de  la  chienne  {as  well  he  bitten  by  the 
dog  as  by  his  mate). 

On  the  other  hand,  to  express  vigorous,  volitional 
agency  par  occurs  where  we  might  expect  de,  as,  hai  par 
les  grands,  aime  par  le  peuple ;  estime  par  les  savants. 

EXERCISE  XLVn 

Translate: 

1.  Those  ladies  are  respected  by  all. 

2.  That  invasion  was  dreaded  by  everyone. 

3.  Is  he  known  to  (de)  you? 

4.  Do  you  fear  to  (de)  be  forgotten  by  us? 

5.  He  will  be  punished  by  his  father. 

6.  She  will  be  punished  for  (de)  her  faults. 

7.  The  topman  was  saved  by  the  convict. 

8.  The  rope  will  be  broken  by  the  sailor. 

106.  Passive  constructions  are  less  frequent  in  French 
than  in  English,  being  usually  avoided  by  the  use  of  on 
(see  §  85),  by  the  use  of  a  reflexive  verb  (see  §  60),  or  by 
turning  the  agent  into  the  subject  of  an  active  verb,  as, 
ses  affaires  le  retiendront  a  Paris,  instead  of  il  sera  re- 
tenu  a  Paris  par  ses  affaires. 

EXERCISE   XLVm 

Translate,  not  using  the  passive  form  in  French: 

1.  The  door  is  opened  but  no  one  is  seen. 

2.  That  isn't  said;  such  expressions  arc  avoided. 

3.  Has  that  book  been  translated? 

4.  I  am  told  that  his  book  is  selling  well  (is  selling  itself 
well). 


THE   INFINITIVE  75 

107.  An  English  past  passive  participle  dependent  on 
a  verb  of  causation  or  perception  is  rendered  in  French 
by  an  active  infinitive  with  some  indefinite  subject  under- 
stood, as,  je  I'ai  fait  appeler,  I  have  had  him  called,  i.e. 
/  have  had  (someone)  call  him;  je  I'ai  vu  frapper,  /  have 
seen  him  struck,  i.e.  /  have  seen  (somebody)  strike  him. 
The  latter  sentence  may  also  mean  /  have  seen  him  strike 
and  should  therefore  be  avoided  where  ambiguity  might 
exist. 

EXERCISE  XLIX 

Translate : 

1.  Do  you  wish  to  have  your  shoes  mended? 

2.  He  has  had  that  ugly  dog  killed. 

3.  I  saw  it  burned. 

4.  Have  you  heard  it  said  often? 

5.  Have  them  called  at  once. 


CHAPTER  V 

VERB-FORMS  OTHER  THAN  THE  INDICATIVE 

THE   INFINITIVE 

108.  The  infinitive  is  a  word  combining  the  functions 
of  a  verb  and  those  of  a  noun;  that  is,  it  may  have  any 
construction  that  a  noun  may  have,  be  subject  or  com- 
plement of  a  verb,  or  object  of  a  preposition,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  expresses  action.  What  is  the  construction 
of  the  following  infinitives? 

Vouloir,  c'est  pouvoir. 

Mieux  vaut  mourir  que  perdre  Thonneur. 

II  aimait  mieux  boire  qfue  manger. 

Je  ne  crois  pas  pouvoir  y  aller. 

Faites,  sans  raisonner. 


76      VERB-FORMS   OTHER  THAN   THE   INDICATIVE 

109.  The  simple  (present)  infinitive  expresses  action 
at  the  time  referred  to  by  the  context;  the  compound 
(past)  infinitive  expresses  action  anterior  to  that  of  the 
main  verb;  hence  after  apres  the  past  infinitive  is  regu- 
larly used:  je  jure  de  m'y  trouver  demain;  apres  avoir 
dit  cela,  il  sortit. 

For  the  preposition  that  sometimes  introduces  an  in- 
finitive, see  §§  202-219. 

EXERCISE  L 

Translate  into  French : 

1.  Knowledge  is  power. 

2.  Death  is  better  than  living  without  friends. 

3.  Do  you  like  swimming  better  than  skating? 

4.  He  does  not  think  he  can  come. 

5.  Go  there  at  once,  without  answering  him. 

6.  After  going  out,  he  called  his  friend. 


THE   PARTICIPLE 

110.  A  part  of  a  verb  that  may  modify  a  substantive, 
i.e.  that  combines  the  functions  of  the  verb  and  of  the 
adjective,  "participating"  in  both,  is  called  a  participle. 

The  verb-form  ending  in  -ant,  generally  called  the 
present  participle,  includes  forms  and  uses  derived  from 
the  Latin  gerund  as  well  as  those  coming  from  the 
present  participle.  The  gerund  constructions  include  a 
considerable  variety  of  circumstantial  complements,  and 
are  frequently  preceded  by  the  preposition  en.  In  ele- 
mentary work,  it  does  not  seem  wise  to  emphasize  the 
distinction,  as  many  students  know  no  Latin,  and  are 
only  concerned  with  the  actual  uses  of  the  form  which 
they  know  as  the  present  participle.      More  advanced 


THE   PRESENT  PARTICIPLE  77 

students,  especially  those  familiar  with  Latin,  may  prefer 
to  divide  the  class  of  present  participles  into  gerunds; 
present  participles  in  the  restricted  sense  of  those  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  participle,  still  retaining  verb-force, 
and  commonly  invariable;  and  verbal  adjectives.  The 
gerund  (gerondif)  is  the  -ant  form  used  as  an  indefinite 
noun. 

To  express  the  less  prominent  of  two  acts  done  at  thfe 
same  time  by  the  same  subject,  we  commonly  use  the 
present  participle,  as, 

On  apprend  bien  des  choses  en  lisant. 
«Parlez,»  dit-elle,  en  le  regardant. 
Ouvrant  les  yeux,  il  vit  son  frere. 

The  preposition  en,  the  only  one  in  French  that  governs 
the  present  participle,  expresses  a  close  connection  be- 
tween the  participle  and  the  main  verb,  such  as  is  often 
indicated  in  Enghsh  by  while,  by,  on,  when,  etc.:  on  de- 
vient  soupfonneux  en  vieillissant,  one  becomes  suspicious 
by  growing  old  or  as  he  grows  old. 

The  present  participle  may  also  refer  to  the  direct  ob- 
ject of  a  verb;  and  it  is  occasionally  found  in  other  con- 
structions, as. 

On  les  trouve  errant  (or  errants)  dans  les  bois. 
Lui  chantant,  personne  ne  bougera. 
L'appetit  vient  en  mangeant. 

111.  English  present  participles  expressing  a  position 
are  generally  translated  by  past  participles  in  French,  as, 
sitting  before  a  little  table,  assis  devant  ime  petite  table; 
leaning  against  the  wall,  appuye  au  mur;  leaning  froin  the 
window,  penche  a  la  fenetre ;  hanging  from  the  branches, 
suspendu  aux  branches. 


78     VERB-FORMS   OTHER  THAN   THE   INDICATIVE 

The  present  participle  in  similar  sentences  would  ex- 
press simultaneous  action,  not  position,  as,  s'asseyant 
devant  une  petite  table,  taking  a  seat  in  front  of  a  small 
table;  s'appuyant  au  mur,  bracing  himself  against  the  wall, 
etc. 

112.  English  present  participles  are  often  translated 
by  a  relative  clause,  as,  /  found  him  waiting  for  me,  je  le 
trouvai  qui  m'attendait ;  a  slee'ping  child,  un  enfant  qui 
dort. 

113.  When  a  preceding  substantive  is  described  by  a 
past  participle,  the  adjective  force  usually  predominates, 
and  the  participle,  like  other  adjectives,  takes  the  gender 
and  number  of  the  substantive,  as, 

Cast  une  plume  cassee. 

Cette  plume  est  cassee;  c'est  Jean  qui  I'a  cassee. 

Voila  la  plume  que  Jean  a  cassee. 

Combien  de  plumes  avez-vous  cassees? 

When  no  preceding  substantive  is  described  by  a  past 
participle,  action  outweighing  description,  the  verbal 
force  predominates  and  the  participle  is  invariable,  i.e. 
it  does  not  change  its  form  to  agree  in  gender  and  number 
with  any  substantive,  as, 

Marie  n'a  pas  casse  la  plume. 
Combien  avez-vous  casse  de  plumes? 

EXERCISE   LI 

I.  Substitute  participles  for  the  infinitives  in  paren- 
theses. 

Ce  matin  nous  nous  sommes  {lever)  de  bonne  heure,  nous 
avons  {dejeuner),  nous  sommes  {aller)  a  la  gare,  nous  avons 
{prendre)  des  billets  pour  Versailles,  et  apres  les  avoir  {payer), 


THE   CONDITIONAL  79 

nous  sommes  (entrer)  dans  la  salle  d'attente.  Quand  on  a  {ap- 
peler)  les  voyageurs,  nous  somnies  (sortir),  nous  soniines  {monter) 
dans  le  train,  et  nous  avons  {presenter)  nos  billets  au  controleur 
qui  les  a  (poingonner)  et  nous  les  a  {rendre). 

En  (arriver)  a  Versailles,  nous  sonimes  {descendre)  du  train, 
nous  avons  (remettre)  nos  billets  a  la  porte  de  sortie,  et  nous 
avons  (heler)  un  cocher  qui  nous  a  (conduire)  au  palais,  oii  nous 
avons  beaucoup  (admirer)  ces  magnifiques  tableaux  historiques 
que  vous  avez  sans  doute  deja  (voir). 

Repeat,  substituting  Marie  for  nous. 

Repeat,  substituting  Marie  et  Louise  for  nous. 

Repeat,  substituting  successively  for  nous  the  other  sub- 
jective personal  pronouns. 

II.    Translate  into  French: 

1.  Close  the  door  as  you  go  out. 

2.  She  broke  her  arm  (se  casser  le  bras)  as  she  fell. 

3.  Saying  that,  she  went  away. 

4.  When  I  came  in,  I  saw  the  flowers  you  had  left  for  me. 

5.  He  went  to  bed  very  late,  and  when  he  awoke  he  saw 
John  writing  a  letter. 


THE    CONDITIONAL 

114.  A  tense  formed  by  adding  to  the  infinitive  the 
endings  of  the  imperfect  indicative,  -ais,  -ais,  -ait,  -ions, 
-iez,  -aient,  is  called  the  present  conditional.  As  in 
forming  the  future,  verbs  in  -oir  except  pourvoir  and  pre- 
voir,  all  in  -re,  and  a  few  in  -ir,  drop  the  vowel  of  the  in- 
finitive ending.  The  tense  might  therefore  be  said  to 
have  the  stem  of  the  future  and  the  endings  of  the  imper- 
fect indicative,  a  statement  true  for  every  verb  in  the 
language.  The  compound  of  the  present  conditional  is 
called  the  past  conditional. 


80      VERB-FORMS  OTHER  THAN   THE   INDICATIVE 

EXERCISE   Ln 
Write  the  present  conditional  of  the  verbs  of  which  the 
future  was  asked  in  §§98  and  99. 

115.     Study  the  tenses  in  the  following  sentences: 

Pierre  repond,  «S'il  pleut,  je  n'irai  pas.» 
Pierre  repond  que  s'il  pleut,  il  n'ira  pas. 
Pierre  repondit  que  s'il  pleuvait,  il  n'irait  pas. 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  words  of  Pierre  are  quoted 
just  as  he  spoke  them;  this  is  called  direct  discourse. 

In  the  other  two  sentences,  the  substance  of  what 
Pierre  replied  appears,  but  introduced  by  the  conjunction 
que,  and  with  je  changed  to  il.  This  is  called  indirect 
discourse.  In  the  second  sentence,  the  verb  repond  is  in 
the  present  tense,  and  the  tenses  following  are  the  same 
as  in  the  direct  quotation,  present  and  future.  In  the 
third  sentence,  the  verb  introducing  the  indirect  quota- 
tion, repondit,  is  a  past  definite,  and  the  following  tenses 
are  not  the  same  as  in  the  direct  discourse,  the  present 
indicative  pleut  changing  to  pleuvait,  an  imperfect;  and 
the  future  irai  changing  to  a  conditional,  irait.  The  past 
tenses,  and  usually  the  present  conditional,  require  such 
a  change  in  the  tense  of  a  subordinate  verb,  and  are  called 
secondary  tenses.  The  present  and  future  indicative  re- 
quire no  change  in  the  tense  of  a  subordinate  verb  and 
are  called  primary  tenses.  Note  that  the  English  con- 
struction is  quite  similar  to  the  French. 

One  of  the  two  great  uses  of  the  conditional  is  to  re- 
place the  future  in  subordinate  clauses  that  depend  upon 
a  secondary  tense.  This  conditional  has  been  called  the 
futur  dans  le  passe  and  denotes  action  to  follow  a  moment 
of  past  time,  just  as  the  future  denotes  action  to  follow 
the  present  moment. 


THE   CONDITIONAL  81 

EXERCISE  Lin 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  change  the  main  verb 
from  present  to  past  definite  or  imperfect  indicative,  and 
make  necessary  changes  in  the  subordinate  verbs: 

L    II  repoiid  qu'il  nous  en  saura  gre,  tant  qu'il  vi\Ta. 

2.  Je  pense  que  celui  qui  a  fait  cela  pourra  bien  fairs  davan- 
tage. 

3.  lis  savent  que  celui  qui  n'etudie  pas,  ne  saura  pas  sa 
lec^on. 

4.  Esperez-vous  qu'ils  viendront  s'il  fait  beau  temps? 

5.  lis  disent  que  nous  serons  les  bienvenus  si  nous  voulons 
leur  faire  visite. 

What  happens  if  we  change  the  main  verb  to  a  future 
tense? 

What  happens  if  we  change  the  main  verb  to  a  present 
conditional? 

II.   Translate: 

1.  He  did  not  believe  she  would  come. 

2.  She  kept  saying  that  they  would  do  it  soon. 

3.  You  knew  you  would  be  welcome. 

4.  Did  you  think  we  should  be  late? 

5.  We  hoped  he  would  find  his  watch  again. 

116.  The  second  use  of  the  conditional  is  its  use  in 
a  then  clause  (apodosis)  to  tell  what  would  be  if  .  .  ., 
implying  non-fulfilment  of  a  condition.  The  if  clause 
(protasis)  regularly  has  the  imperfect  indicative,  or  its 
compound  (the  pluperfect). 

Si  vous  etiez  tombe  (but  you  did  not  fall),  vous  vous  seriez 
casse  la  jambe  (but  you  did  not),  if  you  had  fallen,  you  would 
have  broken  your  leg.  Je  voudrais  bien  le  voir  (but  I  do  not 
see  him),   I  shoidd  like  to  see  him.     Si  Pierre  venait,  nous 


82     VERB-FORMS   OTHER  THAN   THE   INDICATIVE 

irions  ensemble  faire  la  peche  aux  truites  (but  Peter  has  not 
come,  and  our  trout  fishing  seems  improbable),  ij  Peter  should 
come,  we  should  go  trout  fishing  together. 

EXERCISE  LIV 

I.  Translate  into  French: 

1.  If  we  had  apples,  we  should  give  you  some. 

2.  If  you  had  apples,  should  you  give  us  any? 

3.  They  would  die  if  they  ate  those  mushrooms. 

4.  If  I  had  a  carriage,  I  should  go  to  Versailles. 

5.  He  would  come  back  to-morrow  if  it  should  rain. 

II.  Replace  by  the  proper  tense  the  infinitives  in 
parentheses : 

1.  Si  Paul  mange  des  fruits  verts,  il  (etre)  malade. 

2.  Si  Paul  mangeait  des  fruits  verts,  il  (etre)  malade. 

3.  Si  je  vols  votre  frere,  je  lui  (donner)  de  vos  nouvelles. 

4.  Si  je  voyais  votre  frere,  je  lui  {donner)  de  vos  nouvelles. 

5.  Si  les  chats  sont  absents,  les  souris  (danser). 

6.  Quand  les  chats  (etre)  absents,  les  souris  danseront. 

7.  Si  les  chats  etaient  absents,  les  souris  (danser). 

THE    SUBJUNCTIVE 

117.  Some  statements  it  is  well  not  to  make  too 
positive,  either  because  our  knowledge  is  incomplete,  or 
because  the  nature  of  the  fact  makes  it  desirable  not  to 
declare  it  too  positively.  In  subordinate  clauses,  French 
puts  such  statements  in  the  subjunctive  mode.  In  the 
following  sentences 

1.  Je  souhaite  qu'il  retrouve  sa  montre. 

/  ivish  him  to  find  his  icatch. 

2.  Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  vienne. 

I  do  not  believe  he  is  coming. 


THE   SUBJUNCTIVE  83 

3.  Je  regrette  qu'il  soil  malade. 

/  am  sorry  he  is  ill. 

4.  Je  suis  heureux  qu'il  so/7  retabli. 

/  a7?i  glad  he  is  well  again. 

retrouve,  vienne,  and  soit  are  subjunctives.  I  ivish  him 
to  find  his  watch  —  but  I  cannot  tell  positively  that  he 
will  or  will  not;  /  do  not  believe  he  is  coming  —  but  cannot 
say  positively  that  he  is  or  is  not;  I  am  sorry  that  he  is  ill 
—  but  am  reluctant  to  state  positively  so  unpleasant  a 
fact;  /  am  glad  he  is  well  again  —  but  hardly  dare  be  too 
sure  of  it.  The  subjunctive  seems  always  to  imply  some 
such  mental  reservation  as,  "so  far  as  I  can  judge,"  ''if  I 
am  correctly  informed,"  "to  the  best  of  my  knowledge," 
"judging  from  appearances,"  "yet  I  may  be  in  error," 

118.  Th€  essential  characteristics  of  the  three  great 
modes  are,  then, 

Indicative,  positiveness. 
Conditional, 

(a)  in  subordinate  clauses,  supplies  a  secondary  tense 

for  the  future,  "a  future  in  the  past," 
(6)  in  principal  clauses,  implies  some  unfulfilled  con- 
dition. 
Subjunctive,  mental  reservation,  lack  of  positiveness  in 
statement,  absence  of  speaker's  guarantee. 

119.  Some  of  the  expressions  which  usually  require 
the  verb  of  a  dependent  clause  to  be  in  the  subjunctive 
are 

1.  Expressions  of  wish,  command,  purpose,  concession, 
approval,  necessity,  etc.,  in  which  the  implication  of  fu- 
turity makes  positive  statement  impossible.     Events  do 


84     VERB-FORMS  OTHER  THAN   THE   INDICATIVE 

not  always  turn  out  as  we  wish,  command,  plan,  or  think 
right  or  necessary. 

2.  Expressions  of  emotion;  perhaps  because  belief  or 
sentiment,  rather  than  fact,  is  recognized  as  the  cause  of 
emotions. 

3.  Negative  or  interrogative  expressions  implying  un- 
certainty as  to  the  statement  in  the  subordinate  clause. 

4.  Absolute  negations,  superlatives,  and  exclusives  like 
seul,  unique,  premier,  where  a  positive  statement  would 
imply  omniscience. 

5.  Most  impersonal  expressions,  like  il  faut,  il  est  bien, 
etc.,  come  under  1  or  2,  and  require  a  subjunctive  unless 
a  dependent  infinitive  is  used. 

In  the  following  sentences  the  verbs  in  italics  are  in  the 
subjunctive.    Study  them  and  tell  why. 

1.  II  est  juste  qu'il  soil  puni;  il  faut  qu'il  se  conduise  bien. 

It  is  right  for  him  to  he  punished;  he  must  behave  well. 

2.  Je  veux  que  vous  disiez  toujours  la  verite. 
/  wish  you  to  speak  the  truth  always. 

3.  Je  crois  qu'il  est  parti,  mais  je  ne  crois  pas  que  sa  soeur 

soil  partie  avec  lui. 
I  believe  he  has  gone,  hut  I  do  7iot  believe  that  his  sister  went 
with  him. 

4.  Je  dis  qu'il  le  fera,  mais  je  ne  dis  pas  qu'il  le  fasse 

volontiers. 
/  say  he  will  do  it,  but  I  do  not  say  he  will  do  it  willingly. 

5.  C'est  le  meilleur  homme  que  je  connaisse. 
He  is  the  best  man  that  I  know. 

130.  In  subjunctive  clauses  dependent  on  a  primary 
tense  (present  or  future)  we  use  the  present  subjunctive 
or  its  compound  (the  past  subjunctive),  as  in  the  five 


THE   PRESENT    SUBJUNCTIVE  85 

preceding  sentences.  The  present  subjunctive  may  be 
formed  by  changing  the  -ant  of  the  present  participle 
into  -e,  -es,  -e,  -ions,  -iez,  -ent.  The  present  subjunc- 
tive of  ecrire,  present  participle  ecrivant,  is  therefore 
ecrive,  ecrives,  ecrive,  ecrivions,  ecriviez,  ecrivent. 

EXERCISE  LV 

Write  the  present  subjunctive  of 

donner,  finir,  rompre,  connaltre,  lire,  ou\Tir,  plaindre,  con- 
duire,  savoir,  s'asseou',  vivre. 

121.  In  the  singular  and  third  plural  of  the  present 
subjunctive  the  endings  are  mute,  and  the  voice-stress 
(tonic  accent)  therefore  comes  on  the  stem,  which  in  these 
persons  usually  strengthens  its  last  vowel  (stem  vowel) 
whenever  the  first  singular  present  indicative  has  a 
strengthened  stem  vowel.  So  in  mourir,  mourant,  meurs; 
venir,  venant,  viens;  mener,  menant,  mene;  ceder,  ce- 
dant,  cede;  devoir,  devant,  dois;  the  close  stem  vowel  of 
the  present  participle  strengthens  to  an  open  vowel  in  the 
first  singular  of  the  present  indicative;  we  therefore  expect 
a  similar  streng-thening  in  the  mute-ending  forms  of  the 
present  subjunctives  which  are:  meure,  meures,  meure, 
mourions,  mouriez,  meurent;  vienne,  viennes,  vienne, 
venions,  veniez,  viennent;  mene,  menes,  mene,  menions, 
meniez,  menent;  cede,  cedes,  cede,  cedions,  cediez, 
cedent;  doive,  delves,  doive,  devions,  deviez,  doivent. 

EXERCISE  LVI 

Write  the  present  subjunctives  of 

recevoir,  boire,  acquerir,  mouvoir,  envoyer,  fuir,  prendre,  con- 
cevoir,  croire,  apercevoir,  voir.      . 


86     VERB-FORMS   OTHER   THAN   THE   INDICATIVE 

Note"  the  following  forms  of  avoir:  aie,  ait,  ayons;  and 
of  etre :  sois,  soit,  soyons.  What  persons  are  these?  Write 
the  whole  tense. 

Two  verbs,  faire  and  pouvoir,  have  irregular  stems 
fass-  and  puiss-  throughout  the  tense.  Write  in  full. 
The  present  subjunctive  of  savoir  is  formed  in  accordance 
with  the  rule,  although  the  stem  of  the  present  participle, 
sachant,  is  peculiar. 

Four  verbs,  aller,  falloir,  valoir,  and  vouloir,  have  a 
liquid  1  (ill)  before  mute  endings  in  the  present  subjunctive, 
the  third  persons  singular  being  aille,  faille,  vaille,  and 
veuille.  Which  of  the  verbs  occurs  only  in  the  third  sin- 
gular?   Write  the  tense  in  full  for  the  others. 

132.  In  subjunctive  clauses  dependent  on  a  secondary 
tense  (past  tenses,  and  regularly  the  present  conditional), 
we  use  the  imperfect  subjunctive  or  its  compound  (the 
pluperfect  subjunctive).  The  imperfect  subjunctive  may 
be  formed  for  every  verb  in  the  language  by  changing  the 
last  letter  of  the  first  singular  past  definite  into  -sse, 
-sses,  -t,  -ssions,  -ssiez,  -ssent.  In  the  five  sentences  at 
the  end  of  §  119,  if  we  used  imperfect  indicatives  instead 
of  present  indicatives  for  the  main  verbs,  we  should  have 
to  change  all  the  dependent  subjunctives  from  presents  to 
imperfects,  and  the  sentences  would  become 

1.  II  etait  juste  qu'il  fiit  puni;  11  fallait  qu'il  se  conduisU 

bien. 

2.  Je  voulais  que  vous  dissiez  toujours  la  verite. 

3.  Je  croyais  qu'il  etait  parti;  mais  je  ne  croyais  pas  que  sa 

soeur  fiit  partie  avec  lui. 

4.  Je  disais  qu'il  le  ferait;  mais  je  ne  disais  pas  qu'il  le  fit 

volontiers. 

5.  C etait  le  meilleur  homme  que  je  connusse. 


THE   IMPERFECT   SUBJUNCTIVE  87 

The  forms  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  especially 
those  in  -ss-,  seem  obnoxious  to  most  Frenchmen  and  are 
almost  invariably  avoided  in  conversation.  Instead  of 
the  "book  French"  of  5  a  Frenchman  might  say,  c'etait 
le  meilleur  homme  de  ma  connaissance,  or  je  ne  connais- 
sais  pas  de  meilleur  homme,  or  je  ne  connaissais  per- 
sonne  de  si  bon  que  lui. 

EXERCISE   LVn 

Write  the  imperfect  subjunctives  of  the  sixteen  verbs  in 
§38. 

123.  The  present  subjunctive  is  used  with  the  force  of 
an  imperative,  expressing  wish,  exhortation,  or  command, 
in  certain  clauses  introduced  by  que  or  some  compound  of 
que.  These  are  sometimes  regarded  as  clauses  dependent 
on  some  verb  of  wish  or  command  that  is  omitted;  but 
historically  many  are  independent  constructions,  coming 
from  Latin  subjunctives  with  imperative  force.      Thus, 

(Je  veux,  j'ordonne)  Qu'il  vienne!    Let  him  come! 
(Je  serai  content)  Pourvu  qu'on  I'attrape !    Only  let  them  catch 
him! 

134.  A  few  subjunctive  forms,  —  sois,  puisse,  veuille, 
garde,  vive,  plaise,  plut,  dut,  —  are  used  without  que  in 
similar  optative  or  imperative  clauses: 

Plut  a  Dieu  qu'il  f  ut  ici !    Would  to  God  that  he  were  here! 
Vive  le  roi!    Long  live  the  king! 
A  Dieu  ne  plaise !    God  forbid! 
Ainsi  soit-ill   So  let  it  he! 

125.  A  pluperfect  subjunctive  may  be  used  in  either 
clause  of  those  conditional  sentences  that  regularly  have 
the  pluperfect  indicative  in  protasis  and  the  past  condi- 


88     VERB-FORMS  OTHER  THAN   THE   INDICATIVE 

tional  in  apodosis.  So  instead  of  s'il  etait  venu  plus  tot, 
on  I'aiirait  pris,  we  might  find  fut-il  (s'il  fut)  venu  plus 
tot,  on  I'eut  pris.  Some  grammarians  call  this  a  "sec- 
ondary form  of  conditional,"  although  it  looks  like  a  plu- 
perfect subjunctive.    This  use  is  wholly  literary. 


EXERCISE   LVni 

(See  text  in  §  97) 

Translate  into  French: 

1.  I  wash  them  to  suppress  these  formalities. 

2.  I  wish  they  would  suppress  these  formalities. 

3.  They  would  suppress  these  fomialities  if  they  stiU  ob- 
served them. 

4.  They  would  have  suppressed  these  formaUties  if  they 
had  still  observed  them. 

5.  Let  them  suppress  these  formalities;  do  you  wish  us  to 
observe  them  forever? 

6.  If  he  had  made  a  decision,  he  would  have  raised  himself 
upon  his  left  foot. 

7.  Let  him  twist  his  left  foot  around  iiis  right  foot. 

8.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  stool  has  but  three  legs. 

9.  It  was  unfortunate  that  the  stool  had  but  three  legs. 

10.  I  am  sorry  that  he  stretched  out  his  arm. 

11.  I  am  sorrj^  that  he  is  losing  his  balance  and  falling. 

12.  I  am  sorry  that  he  lost  his  balance  and  fell. 

13.  I  was  sorr\'  for  him  to  lose  his  balance  and  fall. 

14.  I  was  sorrv^  that  he  had  lost  his  balance  and  fallen. 

15.  Let  him  support  himself  by  the  dummy!    God  forbid  that 
hefaU! 

16.  The  topman  must  seize  the  foot-rope. 

17.  The  topman  had  to  seize  the  foot-rope. 

18.  I  am  glad  the  topman  seized  the  foot-rope. 

19.  I  was  glad  the  topman  had  seized  the  foot-rope. 

20.  The  convict  must  climb  up  the  rigging. 


GENDER  OF   NOUNS  89 

21.  The  convict  had  to  chmb  up  the  rigging. 

22.  It  is  well  the  convict  climbed  up  the  rigging. 

23.  It  was  Veil  the  convict  had  climbed  up  the  rigging. 

24.  The  convict  is  the  first  who  climbed  U])  the  rigging. 

25.  The  convict  was  the  first  who  had  climbed  up  the  rigging. 

26.  The  topman  is  the  only  one  who  has  fallen  from  the  yard. 

27.  The  topman  was  the  only  one  who  had  faUen  from  the 
yard. 

28.  Let  the  topman  go  down  the  rope  hand  over  hand. 

29.  Order  the  convict  to  go  to  liis  assistance. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MORE  ABOUT  SUBSTANTIVES  AND  THEIR 
SUBORDINATES 

GENDER   OF   NOUNS 

136.  The  best  way  to  master  the  gender  of  nouns  is 
to  associate  each  with  an  article  that  shows  the  gender,  as, 
iin  incendie,  iin  lycee,  une  dent,  une  soiiris.  Most  of  the 
many  rules  sometimes  given  for  gender  are  forgotten  be- 
fore they  are  used.  The  following  appear  to  be  the  most 
helpful  ones,  and  all  that  it  is  worth  while  for  most  stu- 
dents to  memorize.  Even  to  these  there  are  many  excep- 
tions that  must  be  learned  by  experience. 

Assume  a  noun  to  be  masculine,  unless  you  know  it  to 
be  feminine.  The  endings  -age,  -ege,  -aire,  -iste,  and 
-ice  are  almost  always  masculine.  Most  feminines  are 
included  in  the  following  classes: 

1.  Nouns  denoting  females. 

2.  Nouns  derived  from  Latin  feminines  and  from  neuter 
plurals  in  -a. 


90      SUBSTANTIVES   AND   THEIR   SUBORDINATES 

3.  Nouns  ending  in 

-ace,  -ade,  -ude ; 

-ale,  -ole,  -ule; 

-ise,  -ose,  -use; 

-ance,  -anse,  -ence,     -ense; 

-ane,  -ine,  -iere,      -ure. 

Learn  these  by  pronouncing  and  l)y  writing  them.  Learn 
as  exceptions  un  grade,  un  prelude,  le  silence,  un  mur- 
mur e. 

4.  Nouns  ending  in  mute  -e  preceded  by  a  vowel  or  a 
double  consonant.  Learn  as  exceptions  un  lycee,  un 
musee,  un  incendie,  un  genie,  un  parapluie. 

5.  Nouns  ending  in  -son  or  -ion,  and  abstracts  in  -te, 
-tie,  -oire,  and  -eur.  Learn  as  exceptions  le  poison,  le 
bonheur,  le  malheur,  un  honneur,  le  labeur. 

6.  Clef  (cle),  soif  ;faim;  fagon,  legon,  ranfon;  fin,  main; 
chair,  cour,  tour  (tower);  cuiller,  mer;  brebis,  souris, 
oasis,  vis;  fois;  dent,  dot,  foret,  mort,  nuit,  part;  paix, 
chaux,  faux,  croix,  noix,  poix,  voix,  perdrix,  toux;  syllabe, 
justice,  cage,  image,  nage,  page,  plage,  rage;  fanfare, 
guitare,  lyre;  neige,  tige;  fourmi,  foi,  loi;  eau,  peau,  tribu, 
vertu  are  also  feminine.  Study  the  nouns  in  a  chapter  of 
the  text  you  are  reading  and  see  what  per  cent  of  them 
are  explained  by  this  section. 

7.  Gens  is  feminine;  but  combinations  like  gens  de 
lettres,  jeunes  gens,  tous  les  gens  sages  are  masculine. 
Moreover,  a  pronoun  referring  to  gens,  and  an  adjective 
which  begins  its  word-group  or  which  follows  gens,  will 
usually  be  masculine:  ceux  de  ces  bonnes  gens  que  j'ai 
connus;  instruits  or  instruites  par  I'experience,  les  vieilles 
gens  sont  prudents  or  prudentes. 


GENDER  OF  NOUNS  91 

137.  Some  nouns  use  an  entirely  different  word  for 
the  feminine,  as,  homme,  femine;  frere,  soeur;  oncle, 
tante;  bouc,  chevre;  taureau,  vache;  others  have  a  fem- 
inine derived  from  the  same  word,  l)ut  shghtly  different 
in  form,  as,  empereur,  imperatrice ;  canard,  cane;  com- 
pagnon,  compagne;  serviteur,  servante;  loup,  louve. 
Many  change  the  masculine  ending  to  -esse,  sometimes 
slightly  modifying  the  stem  of  the  word,  as,  comte,  com- 
tesse;  maitre,  maitresse;  prince,  princesse;  due,  duchesse; 
dieu,  deesse;  enchanteur,  enchanteresse ;  pecheur,  peche- 
resse. 

138.  Adjectives,  and  most  nouns  not  coming  under 
§  127,  form  their  feminine 

1.  By  adding  -e  to  the  mascuhne,  as,  grand,  grande; 
cousin,  cousine;  meilleur,  meilleure;  but 

Words  ending  in  -e  in  the  masculine,  as  sage,  artiste, 
remain  unchanged. 

On  adding  -e  for  the  feminine,  the  stem  changes  its 
final  consonant  as  follows: 

(a)  f  to  V :  bref ,  breve ;  attentif ,  attentive ;  veuf ,  veuve. 
X  to  s:  heureux,  heureuse;  jaloux,  jalouse;  epoux, 

epouse. 
c  to  ch  or  qu :  blanc,  blanche ;  public,  publique ;  turc, 

turque. 
g  to  gu:  long,  longue. 

n  to  gn:  in  benin,  benigne;  malin,  maligne. 
r  to  s :  in  adjectives  in  -eur  like  menteur,  menteuse, 
trompeur,  trompeuse,  which  have  the  same  stem 
as  present  participles  in  -ant,  mentant  (mentir), 
and  trompant  (tromper). 
(h)  Final  1,  n,  s,  and  t  are  often  doubled,  especially  after 
e,  as,  cruel,  cruelle;  mortel,  mortelle;  gentil,  gen- 


92      SUBSTANTIVES  AND  THEIR   SUBORDINATES 

tille;  nul,  nulle;  bon,  bonne;  chien,  chienne; 
paysan,  paysanne;  gros,  grosse;  epais,  epaisse; 
sot,  sotte;  poulet,  poulette;  chat,  chatte. 

Remember  to  write  the  grave  accent  over  an  e  which 
ends  its  syllable  and  is  followed  by  a  mute  syllable,  as  in 
cher,  chere;  complet,  complete;  secret,  secrete;  etranger, 
etrangere;  sec,  seche. 

2.  By  changing  -teur  to  -trice  if  there  be  no  present 
participle  having  th.  same  stem  and  the  ending  -ant,  as, 
acteur,  actrice ;  createur,  creatrice ;  but  flatteiir  gives  flat- 
teuse,  since  we  have  a  present  participle  flattant.  Note 
as  exceptions  inspectrice,  inventrice,  executrice,  persecu- 
trice. 

3.  By  adding  -ine,  as,  tsar,  tsarine;  Victor,  Victorine. 
Heros  drops  s,  forming  heroine. 

129.  Irregular  forms  are  favori,  favorite ;  frais,  fraiche ; 
tiers,  tierce;  doux,  douce;  faux,  fausse;  grec,  grecque. 

Note  also  the  adjectives  with  two  forms  in  the  mascu- 
line singular  mentioned  in  §  25.  Jumeau,  jumelle,  has  a 
feminine  formed  like  that  of  beau  and  nouveau. 

EXERCISE  LIX 

Write  the  feminine  of  the  follo^\dng  words : 

ami,  jeune,  cousin,  frere,  marquis,  oncle,  franc,  actif,  beau, 
frais,  h^ros,  gris,  muet,  pret,  pareil,  lion,  idiot,  expres,  mou, 
ancien,  "vieux,  dieu,  berger,  inquiet,  favori,  superieur,  empereur, 
directeur,  vendeur,  majeur,  danseiu-,  accusateur,  chanteur. 

Write  the  masculine  nouns  corresponding  to 

mere,  femme,  princesse,  servante,  compagne,  ambassadrice, 
abbesse,  tigresse,  Suissesse,  negresse. 


INVARIABLE  FORMS  93 


INVARIABLE   FORMS 


130.  Uninflected  parts  of  speech,  although  used  as 
substantives,  proper  nouns,  certain  adjectives  hke  demi, 
nu,  plein,  feu  when  they  precede  their  substantives,  and 
adjectives  used  as  adverbs,  are  usually  invariable,  as, 
Les  non  etaient  nombreux.  Avez-vous  vu  les  Duval? 
Elle  etait  nu-pieds  pendant  une  demi-heure  (but  une 
heure  et  demie) .  Elle  parlait  haut.  In  many  of  these  cases, 
and  in  the  treatment  of  compound  nouns  and  adjectives, 
usage  allows  considerable  latitude;  and  common  sense, 
guided  by  the  principle  that,  except  for  the  agreement  of  a 
verb  with  its  subject,  nouns  and  adjectives  are  the  only 
proper  variables,  is  the  best  substitute  for  that  personal 
feeling  for  what  is  right  which  comes  only  with  long  and 
careful  attention  to  good  French  models.  Study  the  fol- 
lowing sentences: 

Ces  fleurs  sentent  bon,  mais  elles  ne  coutent  pas  cher. 
Ce  sont  des  sourds-muets.  Elle  etait  court-vetue.  II  trouva 
de  jolies  perce-neige.  Ce  sont  des  chefs-d'oeuvre.  Avez-vous 
un  cure-dent?    Lisez  les  cinquieme  et  sbdeme  chapitres. 

Certain  words  like  aurore,  jonquille,  marron,  orange, 
paille,  ponceau,  pourpre  were  originally  nouns,  hence 
when  used  to  denote  the  color  of  an  object,  they  remain 
invariable,  the  words  couleur  de  being  perhaps  under- 
stood, as,  des  rubans  (couleur  de)  paille,  straw-colored  rib- 
bons; des  etofifes  marron,  broum  cloths. 

Any  word  of  color  if  modified  by  an  adjective  like 
clair,  light,  fonce,  dark,  is  invariable,  as,  des  fleurs  (d'un) 
bleu  fonce,  des  robes  jaune  clair. 

131.  Although  used  adverbially,  frais  in  fraiche 
cueillie,  grand  in  grande  ouverte,  and  tout  before  a  fem- 


94      SUBSTANTIVES  AND   THEIR   SUBORDINATES 

inine  word  beginning  with  a  consonant  are  inflected  like 
adjectives:  des  fleurs  fraiches  cueillies;  une  fenetre 
grande  ouverte ;  elle  etait  tout  etonnee  et  toute  confuse. 


AGREEMENT   OF   ADJECTIVES 

133.  An  adjective  referring  to  more  than  one  sub- 
stantive must  be  plural,  and  is  masculine  if  either  of  the 
substantives  is  masculine.  If  the  substantives  are  of  dif- 
ferent genders,  it  is  desirable  that  the  one  nearest  the 
adjective  be  masculine.  Marie  et  Jean  sent  arrives. 
Cette  viande  et  ces  fruits  sont  bons. 

Two  adjectives  referring  to  the  same  substantive  agree 
with  it  in  gender;  but  if  the  thought  of  the  adjective  be 
singular  it  need  not  agree  in  number  with  a  plural  noun, 
as,  les  nations  anglaise  et  franfaise. 


COMPARISON    OF   ADJECTIVES 

133.  Except  for  the  three  adjectives  bon,  meilleur,  le 
meilleur;  petit,  moindre,  le  moindre;  mauvais,  pire,  le 
pire ;  and  the  corresponding  adverbs  bien,  mieux,  le  mieux ; 
peu,  moins,  le  moins;  mal,  pis,  le  pis  French  adjectives 
and  adverbs  are  compared  by  means  of  the  adverbs  plus, 
aussi,  and  moins,  expressing  respectively  superiority, 
equality,  and  inferiority,  as,  plus  grand (e),  taller;  aussi 
grand (e),  as  tall;  moins  grand (e),  not  so  tall.  The  two 
terms  of  the  comparison  are  always  connected  by  que, 
although  English  uses  sometimes  than  and  sometimes  as. 

Jean  est  plus  studieux  que  Jules  et  aussi  studieux  que 
Pierre,  mais  il  est  moins  studieux  que  GuiUaume.  Jean 
court  plus  vite  que  vous. 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  95 

134.  In  comparisons  of  inequality,  the  first  clause  be- 
ing affirmative,  a  verb  in  the  second  clause  is  usually  pre- 
ceded by  ne:  il  est  plus  riche  qu'il  ne  le  parait,  he  is 

richer  than  he  seems. 

135.  The  superlative,  in  French,  is  merely  the  com- 
parative made  definite  by  prefixing  the  definite  article  or 
some  Umiting  adjective,  as,  tout  est  pour  le  mieux  dans 
le  meilleur  des  mondes ;  elle  portait  5a  plus  jolie  robe. 

A  phrase  limiting  a  superlative,  generally  introduced  in 
English  by  in,  begins  with  de  in  French,  as,  le  plus  grand 
arbre  du  jardin,  the  tallest  tree  in  the  garden. 

One  definite  article  answers  for  both  noun  and  adjective 
when  the  superlative  precedes  its  noun,  as,  la  plus  jolie 
fiUe  de  la  classe;  but  when  the  adjective  follows  its  noun 
each  must  have  its  own  definite  article,  as,  I'eleve  le  plus 
studieux  de  la  classe ;  les  livres  les  plus  interessants  que 
j'aie  lus. 

EXERCISE  LX 

Translate : 

1.  Paris  is  the  largest  city  in  France,  but  London  (Londres, 
rn.)  is  larger  than  Paris. 

2.  London  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world. 

3.  Is  Berlin  larger  than  Paris?  No,  Berlin  is  smaller  {less 
large)  than  Paris. 

4.  The  dog  is  man's  most  faithful  friend. 

5.  That  apple-tree  is  the  tallest  tree  in  the  garden. 

6.  The  pear-trees  are  as  tall  as  the  cherry-trees,  and  taller 
than  the  rose-bushes,  but  they  are  not  so  tall  as  {are  less  tall 
than)  the  walnut-trees. 

7.  I  like  roses  better  than  pinks. 

8.  Which  is  the  best  of  those  grammars? 

9.  That  one  is  easier  than  it  appears. 
10.   That  one  is  harder  than  you  think  it. 


96      SUBSTANTIVES  AND  THEIR   SUBORDINATES 

USE   OF   THE   ARTICLE 

136.  An  article,  or  some  limiting  adjective,  is  the 
proper  attribute  of  every  French  noun  that  is  used  with 
independent  substantive  force.  When  the  noun  loses  its 
independent  substantive  force  and  blends  with  a  verb 
into  a  verbal  word-group  like  avoir  faim,  prendre  garde, 
faire  attention;  or  fades  into  a  mere  adverb  or  adjective 
as  a  modifier  of  a  verb  or  of  some  more  prominent  sub- 
stantive as  se  mettre  a  table,  monter  a  cheval,  roi  de 
France,  iin  morceau  de  pain,  iin  quart  d'heure,  il  est 
avocat,  sans  peur,  etc.,  it  loses  its  article. 

Vagueness  in  the  substantive  concept,  such  for  instance 
as  characterizes  its  use  with  the  preposition  en  or  in  a 
general  negation,  or  mere  adjective  force,  as  in  apposi- 
tion, —  en  France,  pas  de  livres,  Vivette,  petite-fille  du 
meunier,  etc.,  —  allows  the  article  to  drop  away.  In 
many  cases  it  is  correct  to  use  or  to  omit  the  article  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  definite  substantive  force  desired, 
as  par  chemin  de  fer,  where  the  phrase  has  mere  ad- 
verbial force,  and  par  le  chemin  de  fer,  where  we  feel 
chemin  de  fer  as  a  definite  independent  substantive. 

Names  of  countries  omit  the  article  after  de  in  common 
adjective  phrases  referring  to  the  ruler,  form  of  govern- 
ment, great  institutions,  and  wars:  le  royaume,  le  roi,  la 
cour,  le  parlement  d'Angleterre;  I'lnstitut  de  France;  les 
guerres  d'ltalie;  in  adverbial  phrases  after  sortir,  revenir, 
etc.:  sortir  de  France,  revenir  d'Amerique;  feminine 
countries  omit  the  article  in  similar  phrases  referring  to 
the  products  and  geographical  features  of  the  country:  la 
carte  d'Afrique,  les  monts  d'Auvergne,  la  porcelaine  de 
Saxe,  les  vins  d'Espagne  (but  monts  du  Limousin,  vins 
du  Portugal). 


USE   OF  THE  ARTICLE  97 

Nevertheless,  if  the  conventional  form  of  the  expres- 
sion is  broken  by  introducing  an  unusual  element  — 
comtes  de  Forez,  comtes  amovibles  du  Forez  —  or  if  the 
proper  noun  stands  out  with  dominant  substantive  force 
—  les  montagnes  de  la  Suisse  —  the  article  appears. 

137.     Certain  noteworthy  cases  are 

1.  The  use  of  the  indefinite  article  with  an  abstract 
noun  that  is  modified  by  an  adjective,  as,  une  bonne 
sante,  un  courage  a  toute  epreuve,  une  patience  admirable. 

2.  The  use  of  the  definite  article. 

(a)  With  a  generic  noun,  that  is,  a  noun  used  in  a  gen- 
eral sense,  meaning  all,  every,  in  general,  as,  le  fer  et  le 
plomb  sent  des  metaux,  il  n'aime  pas  les  chiens,  nous 
apprenons  le  frangais. 

(6)  With  distributive  nouns  of  weight,  measure,  etc., 
after  expressions  of  price:  dix  sous  la  livre;  trois  sous  la 
piece ;  trois  francs  la  douzaine. 

(c)  With  proper  nouns  accompanied  by  an  adjective  or 
a  title,  as,  le  petit  Henri,  le  roi  fidouard,  le  pere  Simon. 

(d)  With  most  geographical  names,  except  those  of 
cities,  as,  la  France,  I'ltalie,  le  Rhin,  les  Alpes,  le  mont 
Cervin. 

(e)  Instead  of  a  weak  possessive  adjective,  especially  of 
parts  of  the  body,  an  indirect  object  pronoun  often  occur- 
ring to  show  the  possessor,  as,  il  leva  la  tete;  il  s'est 
cogne  la  tete;  il  m'a  ecrase  le  pied;  elle  lui  donna  la 
main;  il  m'a  barre  le  passage. 

(/)  After  bien  and  la  plupart :  bien  des  hommes,  la  plu- 
part  du  monde. 


98      SUBSTANTIVES  AND   THEIR   SUBORDINATES 

WORD-ORDER 

138.  The  French  language  is  periodic,  fond  of  a  cHmax; 
the  tonic  accent  comes  on  the  last  pronounced  syllable; 
the  stressed,  emphatic,  prominent  word  comes  at  the  end 
of  its  word-group,  where  a  dramatic  pause  can  follow  it. 
Everything  leads  up  to  this  finale,  this  key-word  that 
tells  what  the  rest  is  about.  This  basal  principle  of  the 
language  puts  unstressed  words  like  ne  and  the  objective 
personal  pronouns  out  of  the  way  before  the  verb,  —  je 
ne  le  lui  dirai  pas;  places  weak  adverbs  and  pronouns  be- 
fore the  participle  of  a  compound  tense,  —  il  a  trop  bu, 
nous  n'avons  rien  vu;  develops  expressions  like  c'est  lui 
qui  I'a  fait,  ce  n'est  pas  I'intelligence  qui  lui  manque, 
qu'est-ce  que  c'est?  or  qu'est-ce  que  c'est  que  ga?  to  bring 
the  prominent  stressed  word  at  the  end  of  a  word-group; 
and  furnishes  the  only  trustworthy  guide  to  the  position 
of  a  qualifying  adjective.  The  adjective  that  is  weak, 
hackneyed,  unemphatic,  yields  the  coveted  group-end 
place  to  its  substantive;  but  the  adjective  that  is  stressed, 
rare,  long,  possessed  of  verbal  force,  or  other\\ise  entitled 
to  prominence,  acquires  it  by  coming  after  its  substantive 
at  the  end  of  its  word-group.  So  le  bleu  ciel,  une  blanche 
vestale,  une  profonde  vallee,  un  doux  parfum  gain  little 
from  the  adjective;  skies  are  blue,  vestals  white,  valleys 
deep,  perfumes  sweet,  as  a  matter  of  course;  but  if  we 
see  un  oiseau  bleu,  une  robe  blanche,  un  lac  profond,  une 
odeur  douce  we  are  impressed  by  the  blueness  of  the  l)ird, 
the  whiteness  of  the  gown,  the  depth  of  the  lake,  the  sweet- 
ness of  the  smell.  Overworked  common  words  then,  like 
beau,  bon,  grand,  gros,  jeune,  joli,  long,  mauvais,  meil- 
leur,  petit,  vieux,  vilain,  usually  precede  the  noun;  ad- 
jectives used  figuratively  precede:  une  eclatante  victoire. 


WORD-ORDER  99 

une  verte  vieillesse;  while  an  adjective  strengthened  by  a 
phrase  or  a  long  adverb,  or  joined  by  a,  conjunction  to  an 
important  adjective,  must  follow  the  noun,  as,  un  bon- 
homme  vieux  et  ruse,  des  etres  infiniment  petits,  un 
homme  meilleur  que  ses  voisins. 

Study  the  position  of  adjectives  found  in  your  text  until 
you  feel  the  force  of  group-end  position. 

A  favorite  way  of  bringing  a  particular  word  or  phrase 
into  prominence  is  to  put  c'est  before  it  and  a  relative 
pronoun  between  it  and  the  following  statement,  as,  c'est 
a  Vous  que  je  donne  le  livre;  c'est  moi  qui  vous  donne  le 
livre;  c'est  le  livre  que  je  vous  donne;  where  the  expres- 
sions in  italics  have  more  stress  than  in  the  normal  sen- 
tence, je  vous  donne  le  livre. 

The  tendency  to  put  the  most  prominent  thing  last 
also  appears  in  the  order  of  the  complements  that  follow 
a  verb.  Of  two  equally  important,  the  longer  one  will  fol- 
low the  shorter. 

Not  only  does  the  pause  in  language  lend  prominence 
to  the  preceding  word  or  word-group  which  it  gives  us 
time  to  comprehend  before  we  go  further,  it  also  makes 
prominent  the  word  or  word-group  immediately  follow- 
ing, which  introduces  some  new  subject  to  a  mind  re- 
freshed by  the  pause  and  ready  to  pass  to  a  new  thought. 
Next  in  importance  to  the  end,  then,  is  the  beginning  of 
the  French  sentence  or  verse;  and  in  place  of  the  subject, 
which  regularly  occupies  this  position,  an  important  ad- 
verbial modifier  is  often  put  here,  as, 

Jamais  je  ne  me  battrai  avec  vous. 

Deja  la  nuit  tombait. 

Bientot  il  revint. 

Ce  matin  meme  il  me  I'a  dit. 


100     SUBSTANTIVES  AND   THEIR  SUBORDINATES 


CARDINAL   NUMBERS 


139. 


Digits. 

Digits +  10. 

Digits  X  10. 

1.  un,  une 

11.  onze 

10.  dix 

2.  deux 

12.  douze 

20.  vingt 

3.  trois 

13.  treize 

30.  trente 

4.  quatre 

14.  quatorze 

40.  quarante 

5.  cinq 

15.  quinze 

50.  cinquante 

6.  six 

16.  seize 

60.  soixante 

7.  sept 

17.  dix-sept 

70.  soixante-dix 

8.  huit 

18.  dix-huit 

80.  quatre-vingts 

9.  neiS 

19.  dix-neuf 

90.  quatre-vingt-dix 

When  the  numeral  modifies  a  following  substantive,  the 
final  consonants  of  the  numbers  from  2  to  19,  inclusive, 
are  silent  before  a  consonant  sound,  as,  deux  livres,  trois 
crayons,  cinq  fils,  six  gargons,  sept  plumes,  huit  petits 
agneaux,  neuf  jolies  maisons;  while  before  a  vowel  sound 
liaison  occurs,  f  softening  to  v  and  s  or  x  to  z  in  pronun- 
ciation, as,  deux  hommes,  trois  enfants,  cinq  eleves,  six 
arbres,  dix-neuf  agneaux.  Elsewhere  the  pronunciation 
is  as  indicated,  as,  le  cinq  Janvier,  sept  pour  cent,  page 
neuf.     Liaison  or  elision  never  occurs  with  onze. 

From  21  to  69,  inclusive,  the  multiples  of  ten  are  com- 
bined with  the  digits,  the  conjunction  et  being  replaced 
by  a  hj^hen  except  before  un(e),  as, 


Pronounce:  ce,  yn,  do,  trwa,  katr,  sek,  sis,  set,  qit,  ncsf,  dis,  5:z, 
duiz,  tre:z,  katorz,  ke:z,  se:z,  dis  set,  diz  qit,  diz  noef,  ve,  vet  e  de, 
ved  d0,  vet  trwa,  vet  katr,  vet  sek,  trait,  karait,  seka:t,  swasait,  katra 
ve,  katra  ve  de,  katra  ve  do,  katra  ve  5:z,  sa,  sa  de,  do  sa,  do  sa  de, 
mil,  mil  de,  mil  noe  sa  katra  ve  diz  \\\t,  trwa  mil. 

do  liivr,  doz  om,  trwa  krejo,  trwaz  afa,  se  fis,  sek  eleiv,  la  sek  savje, 
si  gars5,  siz  arbr,  la  sis  avril,  se  plym,  set  pur  sd,  qi  patiz  apo,  nuz 
etj5  qit,  noe  soli  mez5,  diz  noev  ape,  pais  i^o^f. 


CARDINAL  NUMF^Mr? 


101 


21.  vingt  et  un(e) 

22.  vingt-deux 

23.  vingt-trois 

24.  vingt-quatre 

25.  vingt-cinq 

26.  vingt-six 

27.  vingt-sept 

28.  vingt-huit 

29.  vingt-nenf 


31.  trente  et  un(e) 

32.  trente-deux 

41.  quarante  et  un(e) 

43.  quarante-trois 

51.  cinquante  et  un(e) 

54.  ciuquaute-quatre 

61.  soixante  et  un(e) 

65.  soixante-cinq 

69.  soixante-iieuf 


From  69  the  series  continues  "sixty-ten,"  "sixty- 
eleven,"  etc.,  to  "four-score,"  "four-score-one,"  "four- 
score-eleven, "  "  four-score-ten-nine  "  ( =  ninety-nine) : 


71.  soixante  (et)  onze 

72.  soixante-douze 

73.  soixante-treize 

74.  soixante-quatorze 

75.  soixante-quinze 


81.  quatre- vingt-un  (e) 
89.  quatre-vingt-neuf 
91.  quatre- vingt-onze 
97.  quatre-vingt-dix-sept 
99.  quatre-vingt-dix-neuf 


Higher  numerals  are 

100.  cent  1000.  mille 

101.  cent  un(e)  1215.  mille  deux  cent  quinze 

200.  deux  cents  1998.  mille  neuf  cent  quatre-vingt-dix-huit 

209.  deux  cent  neuf    3000.  trois  mille 


Cent  and  vingt  must  take  a  final  s  when  multiplied  and 
not  followed  by  another  numeral,  as,  trois  cents,  quatre- 
vingts,  etc.;  yet  not  when  used  as  ordinals,  as,  I'an  cinq 
cent,  page  trois  cent,  page  quatre-vingt,  etc.  Other  car- 
dinal numbers  are  invariable,  except  un. 

Unlike  the  numeral  adjectives  the  nouns  un  millier 
(1000),  un  million  (1,000,000),  and  un  mUUard  (1,000,- 
000,000)  always  take  an  s  in  the  plural,  and  may  be 
modified  by  an  article. 


1,0^2     ^fjpSTAN'flVES  A?vD   THEIR   SUBORDINATES 

For  dates  between  1001  and  1999  a.d.,  inclusive,  mil  is 
used  instead  of  mille,  as,  mil  huit  cent  douze  (or  dix-huit 
cent  douze). 

ORDINAL   NUMBERS 

140.  The  numbers  that  denote  order  in  a  series  are 

1st.  preniier(s),  fem.  premiere(s)  3d.  troisieme(s) 

2d.    second (e)(s)  when  a  third  is  not  im-  5th.  cinquieme(s) 

phed  9th.  neuvieme(s) 

deuxieme(s)  when  a  thirdis  imphed  10th.  dixieme(s) 
etc. 

the  others  all  being  formed  by  adding  -ieme(s)  to  the  last 
consonant  of  the  corresponding  cardinal. 

COLLECTIVE   NUMERAL   NOUNS 

141.  The  following  feminine  nouns  are  used  to  de- 
note approximately  the  number  indicated  by  the  corre- 
sponding cardinal:  mie  huitaine,  eight;  ime  dizaine,  a 
half-score;  ime  douzaine,  a  dozen,  etc.,  many  others  being 
formed  by  adding  -aine  to  the  last  consonant  of  the  cor- 
responding cardinal.  The  following  are  mascuHne,  and 
(except  millier)  used  Avith  greater  precision:  un  cent,  un 
millier,  un  million,  un  milliard,  etc. 

FRACTIONS 

143.  Fractions  are  commonly  formed  by  using  a  car- 
dinal number  for  the  numerator,  and  an  ordinal  for  the 
denominator,  as,  f,  trois  septiemes;  jo^,  neuf  cent-troi- 
siemes,  etc.     The  following  are  exceptions:  i,  un  demi, 


FRACTIONS  103 

une  demie,  la  moitie;  h,  un  tiers;  i,  un  quart.  Trois 
demi(e)s  et  trois  sixiemes  font  deux  entiers,  three  halves 
and  three  sixths  make  two  wholes  (units).  Deux  tiers  et 
trois  quarts  font  dix-sept  douziemes,  c'est-a-dire  un  (en- 
tier)  et  cinq  douziemes,  two  thirds  and  three  fourths  inake 
seventeen  twelfths,  that  is,  one  (unit)  and  five  twelfths. 

Fractions  limited  by  a  definite  substantive  take  the 
definite  article  themselves,  as,  la  moitie  du  temps,  les 
deux  tiers  de  ces  hommes-la,  il  n'en  veut  que  le  quart. 


EXERCISE  LXI 

I.  (a)  Give  the  tables  for  addition  and  multiplication 
according  to  the  follo\\ing  models: 

Deux  et  un  font  trois,  deux  et  deux  font  quatre,  deux  et 
trois  font  cinq,  etc. 

Une  fois  deux  fait  deux,  deux  fois  deux  font  quatre,  trois 
fois  deux  font  six,  etc. 

(b)  Write  the  follo^\^ng  questions  and  the  answers  in 
French : 

1.  How  many  are  two  thirds  and  one  fourth? 

2.  How  many  are  two  fifths  less  one  third? 

3.  How  many  are  seven  twelfths  and  three  fourths? 

4.  By  (de)  how  much  is  a  half  (demi)  greater  than  a  sixth? 

II.    Translate: 

1.  Mary  has  eaten  half  an  apple. 

2.  Little  John  has  eaten  half  (la  moitie)  of  his  apples. 

3.  They  have  only  written  three  fourths  of  those  sentences. 

4.  We  have  wTitten  some  thirty  (une  trentaine)  of  them. 

5.  This  time  there  were  thousands  of  them. 

6.  Three  eighths  is  hah  of  three  fourths. 


104     SUBSTANTIVES  AND   THEIR   SUBORDINATES 


TIME 


143. 


Quelle  heure  est-il? 

II  est  minuit. 

II  est  minuit  (et)  dix  (mi- 
nutes). 

II  est  une  heure. 

II  est  une  heure  ( et)  un  quart. 

n  est  deux  heures. 

II  est  trois  heures  (et)  vingt 
(minutes). 

II  est  quatre  heures  et  demie. 

II  est  cinq  heures  trente-sept.  ] 

II  est  six  heures  moins  vingt-  j 
trois  minutes.  | 

II  est  sept  heures  moins  un 
(le)  quart. 

II  est  onze  heures  moins  dix 
minutes. 

n  est  onze  heures  precises. 

n  est  midi. 

II  est  midi  et  demi. 


What  time  is  it? 

It  is  twelve  o'clock  (midnight). 

It  is  ten  minutes  past  twelve. 

It  is  one  o'clock. 

It  is  quarter  past  one. 

It  is  two  o'clock. 

It  is  twentij  minutes  past  three. 

It  is  half  past  four. 

It  is  twenty-three  minutes  of  six. 

It  is  (a)  quarter  to  seven. 

It  is  ten  minutes  to  eleven. 

It  is  exactly  eleven. 

It  is  twelve  o'clock  (noon). 

It  is  half  past  twelve. 


DATES   AND   TITLES 

144.     To  tell  the  day  of  the  month  cardinal  numbers 
are  used  except  for  the  first,  as, 


Le  premier  Janvier  s'appelle 

le  jour  de  I'an. 
Le  deux  f evrier. 
Le  trois  mars. 
C'est  aujourd'hui  (le)  lundi, 

quatre  avril. 
C'etait  hier  (le)  mardi,  cinq 

mai. 


January   first   is  called   New- 
year's-day. 
February  second. 
The  third  of  March. 
To-day  is  Monday,  April  fourth. 

Yesterday  teas   Tuesday,  May 
the  fifth. 


AGE 


105 


Ce  sera  demain  (le)  mercredi, 

six  juin. 
C'etait  avant-hier  (le)  jeudi, 

sept  juillet. 
Ce    sera    apres-demain    (le) 

vendredi,  huit  aout. 
II  y  a  huit  jours  c'etait  (le) 

samedi,  neuf  septembre. 
D'aujourd'hui   en  quinze  ce 

sera  (le)  dimanche,  dix  oc- 

tobre. 
Tres  souvent  on  ecrit   7^"^®, 

gbre^    ^bre    g^    x*'"     au    UeU 

de  septembre,  octobre,  no- 
vembre  et  decembre. 


To-morroiD  will  he  Wednesday, 
June  sixth. 

Day  before  yesterday  ivas  Thurs- 
day, July  seventh. 

Day  after  to-morrow  will  be  Fri- 
day, August  eight. 

A  week  ago  (it)  was  Saturday, 
the  ninth  of  September. 

A  fortnight  from  to-day  will  he 
Sunday,  October  tenth. 

Frequently    people    write    7^^, 

gbre^  ghre^  ^^^   -^bre  ^'^g^g^^^  q/ 

September,   October,   Novem- 
ber, and  December 


Similarly  in  titles  the  cardinal  numbers  are  used,  ex- 
cept for  first,  as,  Henri  premier,  Charles  deux,  Pie  neuf. 
But  note  as  exceptions  Charles-Quint  and  Sixte-Quint, 
Charles  V  (of  Spain)  and  (Pope)  Sixtus  Fifth. 

Note  that  days  and  months  begin  with  small  letters, 
not  capitals. 


AGE 


145. 


Quel  age  avez-vous? 

J'ai  seize  ans;  mon  frere  a 
vingt  ans,  et  ma  petite  sceur 
en  a  dix;  done  j'ai  six  ans 
de  plus  que  ma  sceur,  et  je 
suis  de  quatre  ans  moins 
age  que  mon  frere;  j'ai 
aussi  une  soeur  mariee  qui 
est  plus  agee  que  moi  de 
sept  ans ;  elle  est  done  agee 
de  vingt-trois  ans. 


How  old  are  you? 

I  am  sixteen;  my  brother  is 
twenty,  arid  my  little  sister 
ten;  so  I  am  six  years  older 
than  my  sister  and  four  years 
younger  than  my  brother;  I 
also  have  a  married  sister  who 
is  seven  years  older  than  I; 
so  she  is  twenty-three. 


106      SUBSTANTIVES   AND   THEIR  SUBORDINATES 

DIMENSION 
146. 

Cette    salle    est    longue    de      This  room  is  thirty  feet  long, 
trente    pieds    et  large    de  twenty-four  feet    wide,    and 

vingt-quatre  pieds,  elle  est  tivelve  feet  high;  that  is,  it  is 

haute  de  douze  pieds;  c'est-  thirty  by  twenty-four  by  twelve; 

a-dire,  elle  a  trente  pieds  it  is  eight  feet  shorter  than  the 

de     long     (longueur)     sur  next  room,  which  is  thirty- 

vingt-quatre  de  large  (lar-  eight  feet  long. 

geur)  et  douze  de  haut 
(hauteur) ;  elle  est  de  huit 
pieds  moins  longue  que  la 
salle  voisine  qui  est  une 
salle  de  trente-huit  pieds 
de  longueur. 

EXERCISE  LXn 

I.  Translate: 

1.  The  class  begins  at  exactly  ten  o'clock. 

2.  The  teacher  comes  into  the  room  at  two  minutes  of  ten. 

3.  Until  ten  minutes  past  ten  we  read  aloud  (lire  a  haute 
voix)  all  together  after  the  teacher. 

4.  From  quarter  past  ten  to  half  past  ten  we  translate  from 
French  into  English. 

5.  From  half  past  ten  till  quarter  of  eleven  we  translate 
from  English  into  French. 

6.  Until  five  minutes  of  eleven  we  study  the  verbs. 

7.  Sometimes  we  write  a  short  (petit)  dictation  from  ten 
minutes  of  twelve  until  noon,  or  until  five  minutes  past  twelve. 

II,  Write  the  following  questions  and  their  answers  in 
French : 

1.  How  many  days  are  there  from  Christmas  until  New- 
year's-day? 

2.  How  many  days  were  there  from  February  3,  1908,  until 
March  7,  1909? 


CE  AND   IL  AS   SUBJECT  107 

3.  When  were  you  born?     {Use  past  indefinite.) 

4.  What  day  is  it  to-day? 

5.  What  day  was  it  yesterday? 

6.  What  day  was  it  day  before  yesterday? 

7.  What  day  will  it  be  to-morrow? 

8.  What  day  will  it  be  day  after  to-morrow? 

9.  What  day  was  it  a  week  ago? 

10.  Mary  is  fifteen  years  old;  how  much  older  are  you  than 
Mary? 

11.  John  is  seventeen;  how  much  older  are  you  than  John? 

12.  A  class  room  (classe,  /.)  was  thirty-two  feet  long  and 
twenty-five  feet  wide;  how  much  longer  and  wider  is  our  class 
room  than  that  one? 

13.  An  elm-tree  was  eighty  feet  high,  and  an  oak  was  sixty- 
five  feet  high;  how  much  higher  was  the  former  than  the 
latter? 

CE  AND    IL   AS    SUBJECT 

147.  Ce  is  vague,  indeterminate,  11  is  definite,  de- 
terminate; it,  then,  referring  to  some  definite  noun  already 
named  must  usually  be  il  or  elle.  Regardez  ce  tableau,  U 
est  blen  beau.  Va  me  chercher  ma  plume,  elle  est  sur 
I'encrier, 

It,  implying  some  object  the  name  of  which  is  not 
already  clearly  before  the  mind,  or  referring  to  an  infin- 
itive or  a  word-group,  must  be  ce,.as,^  qu'est-ce  que  c'est? 
C'est  un  etau.  II  n'est  pas  arrive ;  c'est  facheux.  Savoir 
c'est  pouvoir. 

The  use  of  a  pronoun,  a  proper  noun,  or  a  determinate 
substantive  in  the  predicate  after  etre  (or  devoir,  pou- 
voir, saurait+etre)  usually  shows  that  the  subject  was 
not  already  sufficiently  definite,  and  ce  is  used,  as,  c'est 
lui,  ce  doit  etre  mon  frere,  ce  sont  des  singes;  etre  be- 
ing plural  when  the  substantive  immediately  following  is 


108      SUBSTANTIVES  AND   THEIR   SUBORDINATES 

plural  and  of  the  third  person,  as,  ce  sent  eux  (but  c'est 
nous,  c'est  Jean  et  son  frere). 

For  impersonal  it,  as  subject  of  etre,  with  a  predicate 
adjective  or  indeterminate  substantive,  use  il  if  the  ad- 
jective be  followed  l)y  de+ infinitive,  or  l)v  a  que  clause, 
as,  il  est  facile  de  faire  cela,  il  est  bien  que  vous  soyez 
venu,  il  est  temps  de  partir.  If  no  such  word-group  fol- 
lows the  adjective,  the  subject  is  ce,  as,  c'est  evident,  ce 
sera  a  faire  demain,  ce  n'est  pas  plus  difficile  que  ga! 
In  short  colloquial  sentences,  and  generally  when  the 
predicate  adjective  expresses  emotion,  ce  often  replaces 
il,  as,  c'etait  pitie  de  la  voir,  c'est  malheureux  que  vous 
soyez  tombe. 

Certain  common  parenthetical  expressions  do  not  fol- 
low this  rule,  as,  ils  sent  revenus,  il  est  vrai;  vous  avez 
bien  fait,  ce  me  semble.  H  is  always  used  to  tell  the  time 
of  day.    See  §  143. 

LE  IN    PREDICATE 

148.  The  predicate  le  (see  §  62)  is  variable  only  when 
referring  to  a  definite  substantive,  as,  etes-vous  la  mere 
de  cet  enfant?  Non,  je  ne  la  suis  pas.  (But,  etes-vous 
mere?  Non,  je  ne  le  suis  pas.)  Etes-vous  ses  freres? 
Oui,  nous  les  sommes.  (But,  etes-vous  freres?  Oui, 
nous  le  sommes.) 

LE  PLUS 

149.  Le,  before  plus  or  moins,  is  variable  when  an 
adjective  follows,  but  only  when  there  is  comparison  be- 
tween different  objects.  De  ces  deux  robes,  celle-ci  est 
la  plus  jolie,  mais  celle-la  est  le  (or  la)  plus  a  la  mode. 
C'est  le  soir  que  ceUe-la  me  parait  le  plus  jolie,  that  one 


EN  INSTEAD  OF  A  POSSESSIVE  ADJECTIVE      109 

seems  to  me  prettiest  in  the  evening.  (The  gown  is  not 
compared  with  another,  but  with  itself  at  different  times. 
Here  le  plus  =  surtout.) 

EN   INSTEAD  OF  A  POSSESSIVE  ADJECTIVE 

150.  Especially  when  referring  to  things,  en  trans- 
lates an  English  possessive  adjective  when  the  possessor 
is  named  in  the  preceding  clause  and  when  the  name  of 
the  thing  possessed  is  chrect  object  of  a  verb,  or  subject 
of  etre,  or  predicate  nominative,  as,  Je  n'aime  pas  cette 
ville,  mais  j'en  admire  la  proprete.  Voyez  ce  couteau,  le 
manche  en  est  fort  joli.  Je  connais  bien  le  Canada,  Ot- 
tawa en  est  la  capitale. 

EXERCISE  LXIII 

Translate : 

1.  There  are  some  ladies.    They  are  my  neighbors.    They 
are  very  well  dressed  (mis). 

2.  Bring  me  my  pen,  it  is  on  the  ink-well;  take  this  pencil, 
it  is  not  weU  sharpened  (taille). 

3.  He  doesn't  study  much,  it  is  true,  and  it  is  very  unfortu- 
nate. 

4.  What  time  is  it?  It  is  midnight.  It  is  the  hour  of  the 
fairies. 

5.  It  is  easy  to  swim;  we  learned  this  summer,  and  it  is  not 
hard  at  all. 

6.  Are  those  ladies  artists?    No,  they  are  not. 

7.  Are  they  the  friends  whom  you  expect?    Yes,  they  are. 

8.  She  is  always  pleasing  (gentil),  but  it  is  when  she  smiles 
that  she  is  prettiest. 

9.  She  is  the  youngest  of  the  family,  Ixit  she  is  also  the 
most  intelligent. 

10.  It  is  a  handsome  house,  but  I  don't  like  its  color.  Does 
its  color  please  you? 


110  MORE  ABOUT   VERBS 

CHAPTER  VII 

MORE  ABOUT  VERBS 

INVERSION 

151.  Jean  etudie  sa  lefon.  Jean  etudie-t-il  sa  legon? 
Est-ce  que  Jean  etudie  sa  legon?  Que  fait  Jean?  or  Jean 
que  fait-il?  Pourquoi  Jean  ne  joue-t-il  pas?  Est-ce  que  votre 
frere  parle  frangais?    Qui  le  dit? 

The  normal  order  is  subject,  verb,  complement,  modi- 
fied by  the  tendency  of  an  emphatic  word  to  end  its 
group.  Putting  the  verb  before  its  subject  is  termed  in- 
version. Unless  the  subject  is  an  interrogative  pronoun, 
inversion  occurs  regularly  in  questions;  when  est-ce  que 
is  used,  the  inversion  occurs  in  that  expression  and  in  the 
following  clause  the  subject  precedes  the  verb.  If  the 
subject  of  the  question  is  a  noun,  it  generally  precedes  its 
verb,  and  the  inversion  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  "pleo- 
nastic" subject-pronoun  after  the  verb.  An  interrogative 
word  or  phrase  begins  its  clause. 

152.  Inversion  also  occurs 

1.  In  parenthetical  expressions  like  dit-il,  repondit-il, 
included  in  direct  quotations.  ((Aliens,  dit-il,  il  est  temps 
de  partir.)) 

2.  Often  when  the  clause  begins  with  a  predicate  ad- 
jective, an  objective  relative  pronoun,  or  certain  adverbs, 
among  which  are  ainsi,  a  peine,  aussi,  au  moins,  bientot, 
encore,  ici,  la,  oii,  peut-etre,  toujours.  Telle  etait  cette 
route.  Aussi  ne  ravons-nous  pas  fait.  Voici  ce  que  m'a 
dit  votre  frere. 


AGREEMENT  111 

3.  Less  commonly  in  other  constructions,  usually  to 
bring  a  stressed  subject  at  the  end  of  the  word-group. 
Vive  le  roi!  Avait-il  de  Targent,  il  en  jetait  par  les 
fenetres.  C'est  la  qu'etait  dresse  I'echafaud.  Vient  un 
autre  qui  dit  le  contraire. 


AGREEMENT 

153.  With  a  composite  subject  or  a  singular  collective 
subject  the  sense  must  determine  the  number  of  the  verb. 
If  the  subject  is  conceived  as  a  single  mass  or  whole,  the 
verb  is  singular;  if  the  components  are  thought  of  as 
separate  individuals,  the  verb  is  plural.  Une  nuee  de 
barbares  desolerent  tout  le  pays.  Une  nuee  de  traits  ob- 
scurcit  Fair.  Une  troupe  de  montagnards  ecrasa  son 
armee.    Une  foule  d'enfants  couraient  dans  la  rue. 

154.  With  a  limiting  phrase,  the  number  of  the  com- 
plement often  prevails.  Plus  d'un  enfant  voudrait  I'avoir. 
Moins  de  deux  ne  valent  rien.  La  plupart  du  monde  est 
egoiste.  La  plupart  des  citoyens  le  detestent.  La  plu- 
part, ^ith  no  complement,  always  takes  a  plural  verb. 
La  plupart  le  croient. 

EXERCISE  LXrV 

Translate : 

1.  Most  men  speak  without  tliiiiking. 

2.  Most  of  the  people  wish  to  leave  the  city. 

3.  IVIost  were  afraid  of  a  siege. 

4.  Most  of  the  senate  wished  to  remain. 

5.  IVIost  of  my  books  are  at  home. 

6.  ]\Iost  (of  them)  are  bound. 

7.  More  than  one  poor  man  will  be  happier  than  he. 


112  MORE  ABOUT   VERBS 

8.  Less  than  two  gloves  are  useless. 

9.  The  army  of  the  barbarians  was  vanquished. 

10.  A  crowd  of  cliildren  were  shouting  and  laugliing  around 
her. 

155.  With  two  singular  subjects  joined  by  ou  or  ni, 
the  verb  in  French  is  usually  plural  unless  the  activity  is 
plainly  restricted  to  one  only,  although  with  either  or 
neither  English  regularly  uses  a  singular  verb.  If  the  sub- 
jects differ  in  person,  their  order  of  importance  in  deter- 
mining the  person  of  the  verb  is:  first,  second,  third. 

Ni  Tor  ni  la  grandeur  ne  nous  rendent  heureux. 

Ni  I'un  ni  I'autre  n'iront  a  la  chasse. 

Ni  I'un  ni  I'autre  ne  sera  votre  mari. 

Le  temps  ou  la  mort  sont  nos  remedes. 

Vous  ou  moi  parlerons. 

Vous  ou  lui  parlerez. 

Son  pere  ou  son  oncle  sera  nomme  ambassadeur  a  Rome, 

EXERCI5E   LXV 

Translate : 

1.  My  brother  and  I  shall  be  blamed. 

2.  You  and  your  brother  will  be  praised. 

3.  You  or  I  will  be  sent  to  the  bank. 

4.  Neither  you  nor  John  will  be  sent  to  the  post-office. 

5.  Either  she  or  her  sister  is  that  child's  mother. 


GOVERNMENT 

156.  Verbs  transitive  in  English  are  often  translated 
by  French  intransitive  ("neuter")  verbs,  while"  English 
intransitives  often  correspond  to  French  transitive 
("active")  verbs. 


COMPLEMENT  113 

to  approach  something,  s'approcher  de  quelque  chose. 
to  leave  Paris,  partir  de  Paris. 

to  remember  something,  se  souvenir  de  quelque  chose. 
to  use  something,  se  servir  de  quelque  chose. 
to  enjoy  good  health,  jouir  d'une  bonne  sante. 
to  obey  someone,  obeir  a  quelqu'un. 
to  please  someone,  plaire  a  quelqu'un. 
to  listen  to  something,  ecouter  quelque  chose. 
to  look  at  something,  regarder  quelque  chose. 
to  pay  someone  for  something,  payer  quelque  chose  k 
quelqu'un. 

This  "government"  of  verbs  should  be  carefully  ob- 
served in  texts  and  dictionaries.  Only  verbs  alike  in 
government  can  take  a  common  complement,  as,  il  aime 
et  respecte  son  pere,  il  entend  et  suit  sa  mere;  but  il 
aime  son  pere  et  lui  obeit,  il  entend  sa  mere  et  lui  repond. 

EXERCISE  LXVI 

Translate  : 

1.  He  remembers  and  loves  you. 

2.  He  will  leave  and  forget  that  little  village. 

3.  He  approached  and  seized  the  table. 

4.  Use  and  carefully  study  your  grammar. 

5.  Those  who  enjoy  good  health  enjoy  skating. 

6.  We  must  obey  and  listen  to  our  parents. 

7.  His  manners  did  not  please  my  aunt,  but  she  paid  liim  for 
his  apples. 

8.  Look  at  that  bird  and  hsten  to  him. 


COMPLEMENT 

157.  A  French  verb  can  have  but  one  direct  object, 
other  objective  substantives  being  either  indirect  object 
pronouns  or  joined  to  the  verb  by  a  preposition.    So  we 


114  MORE  ABOUT   VERBS 

say,  payez-le,  pay  him;  but  payez-lui  ce  que  vous  lui 
devez,  pay  him  what  you  owe  him,  payez-lui  ses  mar- 
chandises,  -pay  him  for  his  goods. 

158.  Faire  and  a  dependent  infinitive  are  in  this  re- 
spect treated  as  a  single  verb:  faites-la  chanter,  faites- 
lui  chanter  cette  chanson,  faites-le  lire,  faites-lui  lire 
cette  lettre,  il  me  I'a  fait  voir,  he  showed  it  to  me  (both 
pronouns  preceding  faire) . 

Entendre  commonly  has  the  same  construction,  and 
laisser,  voir,  ouir  often  do.  Je  lui  ai  entendu  dire  cela, 
laissez-lui  lire  ce  livre ;  but  we  may  also  give  each  of  these 
verbs  (not  faire)  a  direct  object  of  its  own  and  say  laissez- 
le  lire  ce  livre,  je  I'ai  vu  frapper  I'enfant. 

159.  Such  constructions  as  je  fais  lire  ce  livre  a  I'en- 
fant are  ambiguous  and  may  mean  either  /  7nake  the  child 
read  that  hook,  or  I  make  (someone)  read  that  book  to  the 
child,  i.e.  /  have  that  book  read  to  the  child.  In  case  of 
possible  doubt  the  second  is  the  more  probable  meaning, 
but  ambiguity  may  he  avoided  by  sa^ang,  je  fais  qu'on 
Use  ce  livre  a  I'enfant,  or  je  fais  que  I'enfant  Use  ce 
livre,  j'obUge  I'enfant  a  lire  ce  livre,  je  fais  lire  ce  Uvre 
par  I'enfant. 

160.  The  reflexive  object  of  an  infinitive  dependent 
on  faire  is  usually  omitted:  faites  asseoir  ce  petit.  A 
similar  omission  sometimes  occurs  after  laisser,  entendre, 
voir,  etc. 

EXERCISE   LXVn 


Translate : 


1.  I  see  him  coming. 

2.  Let  him  speak. 

3.  I  had  him  go  to  bed  at  once. 


COMPLEMENT  115 

4.  I  had  him  take  off  his  wet  clothes. 

5.  Make  her  hold  her  tongue. 

6.  Make  her  answer  my  question. 

7.  Make  her  open  her  desk. 

8.  Allow  them  to  go  out. 

9.  Have  him  pay  well  for  those  oranges. 
10.  Have  liim  paid  well  for  those  oranges. 

161.  Some  verbs  have  a  substantive  complement  that 
is  neither  direct  nor  indirect  object,  but  an  adverbial 
modifier  expressing  time,  distance,  weight,  price,  etc. 

Recommencer  trois  fois,  to  begin  three  times. 
Marcher  deux  jours,  to  walk  two  days. 
Peser  cinq  kilos,  to  weigh  five  kilograms. 
Valoir  dix  francs,  to  he  worth  ten  francs. 

162.  The  complement  of  devoir,  pouvoir,  vouloir,  oser 

is  often  an  implied  infinitive:  in  such  cases,  as  with 
valoir,  peser,  marcher,  etc.,  just  mentioned,  note  that  a 
past  participle  is  invariable : 

Les  deux  jours  qu'il  a  marche. 

Les  dix  francs  que  cela  a  valu. 

n  a  ecrit  les  exercices  qu'il  a  dn  (ecrire). 

J'ai  apporte  toutes  les  pommes  que  j'ai  pu  (apporter). 

EXERCISE   LXVni 
Translate : 

1.  Pay  him  now;  we  have  not  yet  paid  him  for  his  apples. 

2.  I  shall  make  hini  hold  his  tongue  (se  taire). 

3.  Have  them  run  to  the  post-office. 

4.  Have  them  drop  (jeter)  these  letters  into  (a)  the  box. 

5.  Have  her  read;  but  don't  have  her  read  such  novels 
(roman). 

6.  I  don't  regret  the  ten  dollars  that  cost  me. 


116  MORE  ABOUT  VERBS 

7.  Think  of  all  the  times  you  have  begun  again. 

8.  The  ten  hours  she  has  walked  have  quite  exhausted  her. 

9.  The  twenty  pounds  it  weighed  at  first  seem  Uke  (en 
paraitre)  forty. 

10.   Have  you  corrected  all  the  mistakes  you  could? 

SPECIAL   USES    OF   THE   FUTURE 

163.  The  future  is  sometimes  used  like  an  imperative. 
Tu  ne  tueras  point,  thou  shall  not  kill. 

164.  The  future  states  what  the  speaker  regards  as 
the  probable  explanation  of  facts  previously  mentioned. 

S'il  n'est  pas  venu,  c'est  qu'il  sera  malade  (i.e.  il  doit  etre 
malade,  sans  doute  il  est  malade,  il  faut  qu'il  soit  malade,  je 
crois  qu'il  est  malade).  II  aura  oublie  la  cle,  he  has  probably 
forgotten  the  key. 

SPECIAL   USES    OF   THE   CONDITIONAL 

165.  Instead  of  si  with  an  imperfect  indicative,  we 
sometimes  find  with  the  notion  of  extreme  concession  or 
great  improbability: 

(a)  an  inverted  conditional.  Et  pleuvrait-il,  j'irais  tout 
de  meme. 

(&)  a  conditional  after  quand  (meme),  dans  le  cas  ou,  a 
relative  pronoun,  etc. 

Quand  (meme)  cela  serait  vrai,  qu'importe? 
Dans  le  cas  o^  il  viendrait,  que  feriez-vous? 
Celui  qui  ferait  cela,  serait  un  scelerat. 

(c)  a  conditional  followed  by  que  and  another  condi- 
tional. 

Cela  serait  vrai  que  je  ne  sortirais  pas  d'ici. 


SPECIAL  USES  OF  THE  CONDITIONAL  117 

166.  The  conditional  gives  what  the  speaker  regards 
as  a  possible,  but  unconfirmed  truth  —  "conditional  of 
dubious  assertion." 

D'apres  les  journaux,  il  serait  mort,  according  to  the  papers, 
he  is  dead.     Seriez-vous  son  frere?   Can  you  be  his  brother? 

167.  The  conditionals  of  vouloir,  devoir,  pouvoir,  and 
savoir  present  certain  difficulties,  because  certain  English 
forms  commonly  used  in  translation  are  the  same  for 
positive  assertions  about  past  time  and  for  conditional 
assertions  implying  improbability  and  relating  to  present 
or  future  time.  /  could  not  do  it  may  be  a  positive  asser- 
tion about  past  time,  je  ne  pouvais  [n'ai  (pas)  pu]  le 
faire,  I  was  not  able  to  do  it;  or  it  may  mean  a  conditional 
assertion  about  present  or  future  time,  je  ne  pourrais  le 
faire,  I  should  be  unable  to  do  it  (riow  or  to-morrow),  if  .  .  . 

So,  one  ought  to  tell  the  truth  may  be  a  general  statement 
of  fact,  made  positively,  on  doit  dire  la  verite ;  or  it  may 
imply  but  does  not  always  do  so,  in  which  case  we  say,  on 
devrait  dire  la  verite. 

Je  veux  qu'il  apprenne  sa  lef  on  expresses  the  speaker's 
positive  wish,  almost  determination,  je  voudrais  qu'il 
apprit  sa  legon  emphasizes  the  improbability  of  the  wish 
being  gratified. 

Instead  of  the  present  indicative  of  pouvoir  the  nega- 
tive conditional  of  savoir,  with  ne  alone  as  negation, 
meaning  literally  I  should  not  knoiv  how  to  often  translates 
English  /  cannot,  where  the  inability  is  mental,  je  ne  sau- 
rais  vous  repondre. 

A  similar  use  of  the  interrogative  often  occurs,  sauriez- 
vous  me  le  dire?  can  you  tell  mef 

168.  Where  English  uses  a  past  infinitive  with  these 
verbs,  French  uses  the  present  infinitive  and  puts  the  past 


118  MORE  ABOUT  VERBS 

thought  into  the  tense  of  the  main  verb.  I  could  have 
done  it, — you  ought  to  have  done  so, — /  shoidd  like  to  have 
seen  him,  would  be  j'aurais  pu  le  faire,  vous  auriez  du  le 
faire  (il  fallait  le  faire),  j'aurais  voulu  le  voir. 

EXERCISE   LXIX 
Translate : 

1.  I  could  not  do  it  yesterday. 

2.  I  could  not  have  done  it  yesterday. 

3.  I  could  not  do  it  now. 

4.  I  could  not  do  it  to-morrow. 

5.  You  ought  to  do  so  now. 

6.  You  are  to  do  it  now. 

7.  You  must  do  it  to-morrow. 

8.  You  will  have  to  do  it  to-morrow. 

9.  You  ought  to  do  so  to-morrow. 

10.  You  ought  to  have  done  so  yesterday. 

11.  I  had  to  do  it  yesterday. 

12.  I  wash  him  to  be  silent. 

13.  I  wish  he  would  be  silent. 

14.  I  wish  he  had  been  silent. 

15.  I  should  have  liked  him  to  be  silent. 

16.  I  can't  learn  all  that  before  noon. 

IMPERATIVE 

169.  The  imperative  singular,  although  it  has  the 
form  of  the  first  singular  present  indicative,  is  really  a 
second  person,  and  the  s  which  usually  ends  a  second  per- 
son singular  is  inserted  before  en  or  y  when  the  impera- 
tive singular  ends  regularly  in  a  vowel,  as,  coupes-en, 
vas-y,  portes-y,  donnes-en.  This  s  is  not  used  before  the 
preposition  en,  as,  souffre  en  patience. 

The  missing  persons  of  the  imperative  are  supplied  by 
the  present  subjunctive,  as, 


DIFFICULTIES   OF  THE   SUBJUNCTIVE  119 

[Permettez]  que  je  vous  conte  ime  reponse  qui  m'a  fait 
plaisir!  let  me  tell  you  a  reply  that  pleased  me! 

[J'ordonne]  qu'il  parte  a  I'instant!  let  him  start  at  once! 

[Je  demande]  qu'elles  reviennent  demain!  let  them  return 
to-morrow! 

[Je  souhaite]  que  je  vous  retrouve  k  mon  retour  modeste, 
douce,  timide,  docile,  on  my  return  let  me  find  you  still  mod- 
est, gentle,  retiring,  obedient. 

Compare  with  the  imphed  threat  in:  que  je  te  retrouve 
sur  cet  escalier!  just  let  me  catch  you  on  these  stairs 
again! 

170.  In  classical  French,  when  two  imperatives  are 
connected  by  et  or  ou,  an  objective  personal  pronoun  may 
l^recede  the  second  imperative.  Trouvez-le,  et  lui  portez 
trois  cents  francs.  Payez-les  et  les  laissez  partir.  This 
is  no  longer  customary,  and  formerly  in  this  construction 
both  imperatives  were  required  to  l)e  of  the  same  person 
and  number;  hence  Moliere's  lines,  Finissons  voire  affaire 
et  me  dites  qui  est  celle  que  vous  aimez,  Laissons  cela, 
et  me  dis  .  .  .  have  been  criticized  as  less  correct  than 
Finissons  et  dites-moi,  Laissons  cela  et  dis-moi. 


DIFFICULTIES    OF   THE    SUBJUNCTIVE 

171.  Clauses  introduced  by  the  indefinite  relatives 
qui  que  [ce  soit  qui  (que)],  quoi  que  [ce  soit  qui  (que)], 
quel  que,  oil  que,  si  .  .  .  que,  quelque  .  .  .  que,  pour  .  .  . 

que  (English  icho-,  what-,  where-,  how-ever)  take  the  sub- 
junctive. 

Qui  que  vous  soyez,  si  en  colere  que  vous  sembliez, 
quelque  grief  que  vous  ayez,  quoi  que  vous  vouliez,  tout 
sanglant  que  vous  etes,  entrez! 


120  MORE  ABOUT   VERBS 

173.  With  tout  .  .  .  que,  in  relative  clauses,  and  after 
superlatives,  negative  or  interrogative  expressions,  and 
exclusives,  the  indicative  is  used  to  express  positive  asser- 
tion of  fact,  and  the  subjunctive  avoids  such  positive 
assertion.  Thus  relative  clauses  with  an  indefinite  ante- 
cedent, after  verbs  of  wishing,  striving,  commanding,  etc., 
or  after  negations,  interrogations,  or  conditions,  commonly 
have  the  subjunctive. 

Je  cherche  une  maison  qui  me  plaise. 

J'ai  trouve  une  maison  qui  me  plait. 

Demandez  un  livre  qui  soit  bien  imprime. 

Je  viens  d'acheter  un  livre  qui  est  bien  imprime. 

173.  After  the  present  conditional,  the  past  indefinite, 
or  the  imperfect  indicative  after  si,  when  present  or  future 
time  is  in  mind,  we  commonly  use  primary  (the  present  or 
its  compound)  subjunctives. 

Je  partirais  demain  s'il  fallait  que  vous  vous  en  alliez. 
Serait-il  possible  qu'il  n'ait  pas  regu  ma  lettre? 
Je  n'ai  pas  dit  qu'il  soit  mechant. 

174.  When  the  time  of  the  subordinate  verb  is  inde- 
pendent of  that  of  the  main  verb  the  usual  rules  for  se- 
quence do  not  apply. 

II  me  donna  le  premier  livre  que  j'aie  jamais  vu,  he  gave  me 
the  first  book  I  ever  saw. 

175.  A  very  common  case  is  the  use  of  a  secondary 
(imperfect  or  pluperfect)  subjunctive  to  replace  the  con- 
ditional of  corresponding  clauses  that  do  not  require  the 
subjunctive. 

Je  crois  qu'il  pourrait  le  faire  s'il  etait  ici. 
Je  ne  crois  pas  qu'il  put  le  faire  s'il  etait  ici. 


INFINITIVE  121 

EXERCISE  LXX 

Translate : 

1.  Whoever  you  are,  speak! 

2.  However  rich  she  is,  it  is  unfortunate  that  she  is  proud 
and  impoUte. 

3.  Of  all  his  books,  it  is  the  only  one  he  has  read. 

4.  Of  all  those  books,  he  chose  the  plainest  {it  is  the  least 
handsome  that  he  chose). 

5.  Is  there  a  man  who  can  do  that? 

6.  I  know  a  man  who  can  do  it  to-morrow. 

7.  I  do  not  think  he  will  come  if  it  rains. 

8.  I  do  not  think  he  would  have  come  if  it  had  rained. 

9.  That  is  the  first  thing  he  told  me. 

10.  Is  he  the  first  who  has  failed  to  keep  his  word  (manquer  a 
sa  parole)? 

11.  It  is  his  best  horse  which  is  dead. 

12.  It  is  the  best  horse  that  ever  ran. 

13.  Is  it  your  last  letter  that  she  did  not  receive? 

14.  You  are  reading  the  last  letter  she  ^v^ote. 

15.  It  is  the  youngest  of  my  brothers  whom  you  know. 

INFINITIVE 

176.  The  infinitive  preceded  by  de  (historical  infini- 
tive) is  sometimes  used,  in  narration,  instead  of  an  in- 
dicative. 

II  se  sauva  et  Rigolette  de  rire,  he  ran  away  and  Rigolette  burst 
out  laughing. 

177.  The  infinitive  is  used  with  imperative  force  in 
brief  directions  and  references. 

Agiter  le  flacon,  shake  the  bottle. 

Voir  page  cent  deux,  see  page  one  hundred  two. 

178.  The  active  infinitive,  with  an  indefinite  subject 
understood,  is  used  after  faire,  laisser,  and  verbs  of  per- 


122  MORE   ABOUT   VERBS 

ception,  where  English  has  a  passive  construction.     A 
similar  use  occurs  in  adjective  phrases  beginning  with  a, 

Je  I'ai  entendu  dire,  /  have  heard  it  said. 

II  s'est  fait  batir  une  maison,  he  had  a  house  built  for  himself. 

Elle  etait  bien  a  plaindre,  she  ivas  much  to  he  •pitied. 

EXERCISE   LXXI 

Translate : 

1.  Here  are  some  chairs  I  have  had  made. 

2.  We  heard  the  Marseillaise  {Marseillaise,  f.)  sung, 

3.  There  were  dangers  to  be  avoided. 

4.  There  will  be  nothing  to  be  said. 

5.  I  saw  the  door  broken  in. 

PARTICIPLES 

179.  It  is  sometimes  hard  to  determine  whether  the 
form  in  -ant  is  verbal,  and  so  invariable,  or  used  ^vith 
adjective  force,  and  so  required  to  agree  in  gender  and 
number  with  its  substantive.  Always  after  en,  and 
usually  when  accompanied  by  an  objective  or  adverbial 
complement,  the  word  is  invariable. 

180.  Invariable  are  the  past  participles  of 

(a)  Impersonal  verbs  (see  §  181) : 

Les  difficultes  qu'il  y  a  eu,  the  difficidties  there  have  been. 
La  belle  journee  qu'il  a  fait,  the  fine  day  it  has  been. 
Les  efforts  qu'il  lui  a  fallu,  the  efforts  necessary  for  him. 

(6)  Marcher,  couter,  valoir,  etc.,  ^vith  a  noun  comple- 
ment that  is  not  really  a  direct  object  (see  §§  161,  162): 

Les  dix  francs  que  cela  m'a  coute. 
Les  trois  milles  que  jai  couru. 


IMPERSONAL   VERBS  123 

(c)  Verbs  with  a  complementary  infinitive  that  has  no 
subject  expressed;  and  fait  with  any  complementary  in- 
finiti^'e : 

La  dame  que  j'ai  entendu(e)'  chanter. 
La  chanson  que  j'ai  entendu  chanter. 
La  voiture  que  j'ai  vu(e)^  venir. 
La  voiture  que  j'ai  fait  venir. 


IMPERSONAL   VERBS 

181.  An  impersonal  verb  is  one  used  in  the  third  sin- 
gular only  with  indefinite  il,  it,  there,  as  subject. 

H  pleut,  it  is  raining. 
II  faut,  it  is  necessary. 

183.     Many  verbs  are  only  occasionally  impersonal. 

II  vint  des  medecins,  there  came  doctors. 
II  vaudra  mieux  se  taire,  it  will  be  better  to  say  nothing. 
II  s'agit  de  votre  couronne,  your  crown  is  at  stake. 
II  y  va  de  votre  vie,  you  risk  your  life.     (It  is  a  question  of 
your  crown,  your  life.) 

183.  Faire  is  used  impersonally  of  time  and  weather, 
or  with  certain  complements  composed  of  an  adjective 
followed  by  an  infinitive. 

n  fait  beau  (temps),  it  is  fine  ireather,  but  le  temps  est  beau. 
II  fait  chaud,  it  is  warm,  but  I'ete  a  ete  bien  chaud  cette 

annee. 
II  se  fait  tard,  it  is  grouping  late. 
II  fait  bon  y  vivre  par  un  tel  temps,  it  is  -pleasant  to  live  there 

in  such  weather. 

1  Agreement  desirable,  but  optional. 


124  MORE  ABOUT   VERBS 

184.  Avoir,  preceded  by  y,  is  used  in  many  idiomatic 
expressions  (see  §  180a) : 

II  y  a,  il  y  a  eu,  il  y  aura,  y  a-t-il,  y  avait-il,  etc.,  there  is 

(are),  there  have  been,  there  ivill  be,  are  there,  was  there,  etc. 
II  n'y  en  a  pas  eu  cette  annee,  there  have  not  been  any  this  year. 
Combien  (de  temps)  y  a-t-il  que  vous  etes  ici?  hoiv  long  have 

you  been  here?    (Depuis  quand  etes-vous  ici?) 
Combien  (de  milles)  y  a-t-il  de  Boston   a  Springfield?  how 

far  is  it  from  Boston  to  Springfield? 
II  y  a  une  centaine  de  milles,  it  is  about  a  hundred  miles. 
II  est  arrive  il  y  a  huit  jours,  he  arrived  a  week  ago.     (II  est 

arrive  depuis  huit  jours.) 

185.  Do  not  confuse  il  y  a,  which  is  declarative,  with 
voila,  which  is  demonstrative  and  exclamatory,  used  only 
when  showing  or  pointing  out. 

Voila  votre  livre !  here  (there)  is  your  book! 
II  y  a  un  livre  sur  mon  bureau;  est-ce  le  votre?  there  is  a 
book  on  my  desk;  is  that  one  yours? 

186.  Falloir  expresses  external  or  material  necessity 
as  distinguished  from  devoir,  moral  obligation  or  inten- 
tion. The  distinction  is  not  always  observed.  With 
complementary  infinitive  an  unstressed  subject  is  com- 
monly omitted. 

H  faut  partir,  (/,  you,  we,  he,  etc.)  must  go. 

When  the  subject  of  English  must  would  be  a  personal 
pronoun,  two  constructions  are  possible  with  falloir: 
they  ntust  go,  il  leur  faut  partir,  or,  il  faut  qu'ils  partent; 
but  il  faut  qtie  Jean  parte,  il  fallait  que  son  frere  partit. 

English  to  7ieed  is  commonly  translated  ]\y  falloir  with 
indirect  object. 


ADVERBS  125 

I  need  a  -pen,  il  me  faut  une  plume. 

That  little  king  would  need  a  kingdom,  il  faudrait  un  royaume 
a  ce  petit  roi. 

EXERCISE  LXXII 

Translate : 

1.  The  point  is  to  find  out  what  they  have  done. 

2.  His  happiness  is  at  stake. 

3.  It  would  be  better  to  stay  here. 

4.  What  sort  of  weather  is  it? 

5.  The  weather  was  very  cold  yesterday. 

6.  It  is  expensive  living  in  New  York. 

7.  I  wrote  to  her  three  days  ago. 

8.  How  far  is  it  from  here  to  the  post-office? 

9.  You  need  half  an  hour  to  go  there  on  foot. 
10.   That  door  needs  a  key. 

Note.  The  student  desiring  a  fuller  treatment  of  the  French 
verb  is  referred  to  larger  grammars  or  to  special  books,  one  of  the 
best  of  which  is  Syntax  of  the  French  Verb,  by  E.  C.  Armstrong, 
Henry  Holt  and  Company,  New  York. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
UNINFLECTEr)  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 
ADVERBS 

IS'?.  Position.  An  adverb  commonly  follows  its  verb 
immediately;  but  interrogatives  stand  at  the  beginning  of 
the  clause,  and  others  may  be  put  there  for  emphasis  or 
to  give  stressed  words  their  proper  position. 

II  marchait  lentement.     EUe  ne  viendra  pas  aujourd'hui. 
Quand  viendra-t-elle?   Demain  vous  la  verrez. 


126  UNINFLECTED   PARTS   OF  SPEECH 

With  an  infinitive  or  a  participle,  a  common,  short,  un- 
stressed adverb  usually  precedes;  a  long  or  stressed  ad- 
verb will  follow. 

II  ne  faut  pas  trop  parler.    II  faut  parler  distinctement. 
II  I'ai  bien  vu.    II  s'est  vite  apaise.    Je  I'ai  vu  hier. 

Otherwise  an  adverb  connnonly  i)recedes  the  word  or 
phrase  it  modifies:  tres  souvent,  bien  facile,  tout  d'abord. 

188.  Derivation  from  adjectives.  Many  adverbs  are 
formed  by  adding  -ment  to  the  feminine  of  an  adjective: 
grand,  grandement;  heureux,  heureusement ;  sec,  seche- 
ment. 

The  inflectional  -e  of  the  feminine  is  omitted  if  the 
masculine  singular  ends  in  a  vowel:  joliment,  resolument, 
decidement;  l)ut  gaiment  (or  gaiement),  assidument,  and 
a  few  others  indicate  the  omission  by  a  circumflex  accent. 

189.  Certain  adverbs  of  four  or  more  syllables  have 
-ement  instead  of  -ement:  aveuglement,  confusement, 
precisement,  etc.   (Compare  the  substantive  aveuglement.) 

190.  With  the  exception  of  lent,  present,  and  vehe- 
ment (lentement,  presentement,  vehementement)  adjec- 
tives in  -ant  or  -ent  add  -ment  to  the  masculine  and 
assimilate  -nt  to  -m :  constamment,  galamment,  mecham- 
ment,  recemment,  prudemment.  The  ending  is  always 
pronounced  as  if  spelled  -ament. 

191.  Beaucoup,  comparative  plus,  may  be  added  to 
the  adverbs  mentioned  in  §  133  as  irregularly  compared. 
After  plus  or  moins,  a  complementary  substantive  pre- 
ceded by  a  num(M-al  is  introduced  by  de  not  que. 

Ce  tigre  a  mange  plus  d'un  enfant,  that  tiger  has  eaten  children, 
—  more  than  one. 


NON,   OUI,   SI  127 

|f  the  substantive  belongs  in  a  different  clause  (with  verb 
expressed  or  understood)  and  is  not  itself  the  complement 
of  plus,  use  que. 

Ce  chien  mange  plus  qu'un  enfant  (ne  mange),  that  dog  eats 
more  than  a  child  (eats). 

NON,  OUI,  SI 

192.  Except  with  a  verb,  the  common  negation  is 
non;  the  common  affirmation  is  oui.  Le  ferez-vous,  oui 
ou  non?  Non  seulement  lui,  mais  aussi  sa  fenune.  Une 
maison  non  meublee. 

Non  may  be  strengthened  by  pas  or  point.  Voulez- 
vous  le  faire?    Non  pas ! 

193.  Affirmation  in  reply  to  an  implied  or  expected 
negative  is  si  sometimes  strengthened  by  repetition  or 
by  adding  fait. 

«I1  n'est  pas  venu.  —  Si,  si,  il  est  ici. » 

«Vous  ne  m'ecoutez  pas.  —  Si,  monsieur,  je  vous  ecoute.» 

«Je  crois  qu'il  n'est  pas  venu.  —  Si  fait,  il  est  la.)> 

194.  Monsieur,  madame,  etc.,  are  commonly  used 
with  oui,  non,  etc.,  in  polite  conversation;  frequently  also 
with  nouns  of  relationship  or  titles:  monsieur  votre  oncle, 
madame  votre  mere,  monsieur  le  capitaine. 

195.  Oui,  non,  or  si  is  often  used  after  que  to  replace 
an  entire  clause:  je  pense  que  non,  il  repond  que  si,  je 
dis  que  oui,  /  think  not,  he  replies  yes,  I  say  yes. 

196.  Negation,  with  a  verb,  is  expressed  by  ne.  Ne 
alone  as  negation  occurs : 


128  UNINFLECTED   PARTS  OF   SPEECH 

(a)  Often  with  savoir  and  bouger;  and  with  pouvoir, 
oser,  or  cesser,  followed  by  an  infinitive.  (Ne  alone 
always  in  je  ne  saurais,  je  ne  sais  quoi,  etc.) : 

II  ne  pouvait  (pas)  repondre,  he  could  not  answer. 

EUe  ne  cesse  (pas)  de  larmoyer,  she  is  always  sniveling. 

Je  ne  saurais  vous  le  dire,  /  can't  tell  you. 

II  repondit  je  ne  sais  quoi,  he  answered  something  or  other  (I 

know  not  what). 
Je  ne  sais  que  dire,  /  know  not  what  to  say. 

(b)  In  dependent  clauses  after  expressed  or  implied 
negation: 

Je  ne  veux  rien,  si  ce  n'est  ce  fusil,  7  ivill  have  nothing  except 

that  gun. 
II  n'y  a  personne  qui  ne  le  croie,  everybody  believes  him. 
Prenez  garde  qu'on  ne  vous  voie,  take  care  they  don't  see  you. 

(c)  In  inverted  conditions  and  occasionally  in  others: 

N'eut  ete  cette  petite,  j'etais  mort,  but  for  that  child,  I  should 

have  been  a  dead  man. 
Si  je  ne  me  trompe  (pas),  if  I  mistake  not. 

(d)  After  que  meaning  why,  and  usually  after  qui  or 
que  in  rhetorical  questions: 

Que  n'etiez-vous  la?    Why  weren't  you  there? 
Qui  ne  le  voit?    Who  doesn't  see  it? 

(e)  Often  in  proverbial  and  set  expressions: 

N'importe,  no  matter. 

II  n'est  pire  eau  que  I'eau  qui  dort,  still  waters  run  deep. 

Je  n'avais  garde  de  I'eveiller,  I  took  care  not  to  wake  him. 

(/)  With  compound  tenses  after  11  y  a,  voila,  depuis : 

II  y  a  six  mois  que  je  ne  lui  ai  parle,  I  haven't  spoken  to  him 
for  six  months. 


PLEONASTIC  NE  129 

Voila  un  mois  que  je  ne  I'ai  vu,  /  haven't  seen  him  Jor  a  month. 
Depuis  que  je  ne  vous  ai  vu,  since  I  saw  you  (I  have  not 

seen  you  during  the  time  mentioned). 
n  avait  bien  change  depuis  que  je  ne  I'avais  vu. 

But  with  a  simple  tense  use  ne  .  .  .  plus,  ne  .  .  .  pas, 
ne  .  .  .  pomt: 

Depuis  deux  jours  je  ne  sors  plus  (pas). 

Voici  un  mois  que  je  ne  le  vois  plus  (pas). 

Depuis  que  je  ne  vous  vois  plus  (pas). 

n  y  avait  longtemps  que  nous  ne  nous  voyions  point. 


PLEONASTIC   NE 

197.  A  ne  so  weak  in  force  that  we  do  not  translate  it 
and  that  the  negative  value  seems  to  have  faded  almost 
entirely  away  is  generally  used  but  is  not  now  required: 

(a)  With  a  finite  verb  in  the  second  member  of  a  com- 
parison expressing  inequality,  unless  the  first  member  ex- 
presses or  implies  negation:  elle  est  plus  jolie  que  vous 
ne  la  croyiez,  she  is  prettier  than  you  thought  her;  liut  elle 
n'est  pas  plus  jolie  qu'elle  I'etait.  II  est  plus  habile  qu'il 
ne  le  parait,  but  il  n'est  pas  plus  habile  qu'il  le  parait. 

In  such  a  sentence  as  il  est  plus  habile  que  lorsque 
vous  I'avez  connu  note  that  the  real  second  term  of 
the  comparison  is  omitted,  the  full  expression  being  qu'il 
ne  I'etait  lorsque  vous  I'avez  connu. 

(6)  With  dependent  subjunctives  commonly: 
1.  After  affirmative  expressions  of   fearing:    je  crains 
qu'il  ne  revienne,  /  fear  he  will  return.    I  fear  he  will  not 
return  would  be,  je  crains  qu'il  ne   revienne   pas.     Ne 


130  UNINFLECTED   PARTS   OF   SPEECH 

craignez-vous  pas  qu'il  ne  revienne?  do  you  not  fear  that 
he  will  return  f  In  the  last  example  negation  and  inter- 
rogation neutralize  each  other,  resulting  in  affirmative 
force,  while  alone  neither  would  have  ne:  craignez-vous 
qu'il  revienne?     Je  ne  crains  pas  qu'il  revienne. 

2.  After  empecher,  eviter,  a  moins  que,  rarely  avant 
que,  and  after  negative  expressions  of  doubt  or  denial,  in- 
cluding douter,  nier,  s'en  falloir,  etc.,  as, 

Empechez  qu'il  ne  parte  aujourd'hui,  keep  him  from  starting 

to-day. 
II  ne  le  devinera  pas  a  moins  que  vous  ne  lui  en  ayez  dit 

quelque  chose,  he  wonH  guess  it  unless  you  have  told  him 

something  about  it. 
Je  ne  doute  pas  qu'il  n'arrive  ce  soir,  /  doubt  not  that  he  ivill 

come  this  evening. 
Peu  s'en  est  fallu  qu'il  ne  m'ait  dit  votre  nom,  he  almost  told 

me  your  name  (he  lacked  but  little,  —  peu  has  negative  force 

here).    But  11  s'en  faut  de  beaucoup  que  la  somme  y  soit, 

the  sum  is  far  from  being  here. 

198.  Except  as  specified  in  §§  196,  197,  ne  is  usually 
strengthened  by  an  adverb  or  substantive  like  pas  or 
point  (brin,  goutte,  miette)  placed  after  the  verb,  as,  je 
ne  vais  pas,  elle  ne  reviendra  point,  ne  .  .  .  point  being  a 
stronger  negative  than  ne  .  .  .  pas.  Common  combina- 
tions are  ne  .  .  .  pas,  ne  .  .  .  point,  not;  ne  .  .  .  guere, 
hardly;  ne  .  .  .  jamais,  never;  ne  .  .  .  plus,  no  more;  ne  .  .  . 
que,  only;  ne  .  .  .  personne,  no  one;  ne  .  .  .  rien,  nothing. 
The  use  of  any  word  that  gives  negative  force  to  the 
clause,  like  aucunement,  nullement,  nul,  ni  .  .  .  ni,  etc., 
requires  the  verb  to  be  preceded  by  ne.  In  compound 
tenses  pas  precedes  the  participle;  it  may  follow  avoir  or 
etre,  but  precedes  other  infinitives. 


PLEONASTIC   A'^  131 

199.  Certain  adverbs  like  tant,  si,  take  tlie  prefix  au 
(autant,  aussi)  when  used  with  comparative  force,  espe- 
cially when  affirmative.  In  aussi  the  s  is  doubled  to  pre- 
serve the  sharp  (surd)  sound  between  two  vowels.  II  a  bu 
autant  que  son  frere,  he  drank  as  much  as  his  brother;  but 
with  absolute  force:  il  but  tant  qu'il  en  mourut,  he  drank 
so  much  that  he  died  from  it. 

200.  Davantage  is  a  strong  adverb  and  stands  last  in 
its  word-group.  It  is  not  to  be  used  in  comparisons,  and 
except  for  loss  of  force  might  always  be  replaced  by  plus. 
In  which  of  the  following  sentences  might  davantage  have 
been  used? 

Cela  m'interesse  encore  plus.     N'en  parlez  plus. 

J'ai  gagne  plus  de  dix  francs.     Elle  est  de  beaucoup  plus 

habile  que  lui. 
Vous  avez  de  I'argent,  mais  il  en  a  plus. 

201.  Only,  referring  to  a  word  which  is  predicate  nom- 
inative or  an  objective  complement  of  the  verb,  is  gen- 
erally ne  .  .  .  que. 

Ce  n'est  que  Jean,  it  is  only  Jean. 

Je  ne  veux  que  ce  livre-la,  /  ivill  have  that  book  only. 

II  ne  pense  qu'a  sa  sceur,  he  thinks  of  his  sister  only. 

Seulement  may  replace  ne  .  .  .  que  in  any  construction, 
or  may  be  used  to  strengthen  ne  .  .  .  que,  and  is  used 
where  ne  .  .  .  que  could  not  be,  when  only  refers  to  a  que 
clause  or  to  a  word  which  is  not  a  predicative  complement 
of  the  verb.  When  only  refers  to  the  subject,  French 
often  uses  an  adjective  or  the  paraphrase  il  n'y  a  que  .  .  . 
qui,  as,  lui  seul  le  savait,  or  il  n'y  a  que  lui  qui  le  savait. 


132  UNINFLECTED   PARTS  OF   SPEECH 

PREPOSITIONS 

303.  A,  apart  from  its  use  as  the  sign  of  an  indirect 
object,  or  "dative,"  expresses  location  at  a  point  or 
motion  toward  a  point.  Compare  a  Paris,  a  la  maison, 
with  en  France,  dans  Paris,  dans  la  maison.  The  first 
expresses  simply  location  or  direction.  One  may  be  a 
Paris  whether  within  or  without  the  walls;  your  father  is 
a  la  maison  when  standing  at  the  gate,  or  sitting  on  the 
piazza,  or  watering  the  flowers  in  his  garden;  but  only 
the  man  within  the  walls  is  dans  Paris,  only  inside  the 
door  is  one  dans  la  maison.  While  a  city  is  a  mere  point 
on  the  map,  a  place  at  which,  a  country  with  its  greater 
extent  is  thought  of  as  a  region  within  which,  and  we  say 
a  Londres,  a  Rome,  a  Beriin,  but  en  Angleterre,  en  Italie, 
en  Allemagne,  en  Portugal,  ^  en  Danemark.^  Newly  dis- 
covered and  far-away  lands  probably  impressed  the  an- 
cient Frenchman  as  mere  points  on  the  earth's  surface, 
and  he  said  au  Japon,  au  Mexique,  au  Canada,  aux  Etats- 
Unis,  forms  which,  once  established,  have  remained. 
Feminine  countries  outside  of  Europe,  however,  follow  the 
analogy  of  European  countries  and  use  en,  not  a  and  the 
definite  article,  as  en  Afrique,  en  Asie,  en  Amerique. 

A  similar  use  of  a  with  a  definite,  en  with  an  indefinite, 
noun  appears  in  the  time  expressions,  au  printemps,  en 
ete,  en  automne,  en  hiver. 

Compare  penser  a  quelque  chose,  tu  think  of  something, 
meaning  the  direction  of  one's  thought,  with  penser 
quelque  chose  de  .  .  .,  meaning  to  have  a  certain  opinion 
concerning  .  .  . 

Probably  the  notion  of  location  explains  an  expression 

1  From  analogy  with  other  mascuUne  names  of  countries,  au 
Danemark,  au  Portugal  are  now  often  heard. 


PREPOSITIONS 


133 


like  quelle  heure  est-il  a  votre  montre?  What  time  is  it  by 
your  watch f 

303.  A  introduces  many  adverbial  phrases  of  manner 
and  adjective  phrases  of  characteristic:  parler  a  haute 
voix,  acheter  a  tout  prix,  s'amuser  aux  depens  de  quel- 
qu'un,  faire  a  la  main,  vendre  a  la  douzaine,  au  poids, 
prendre  im  domestique  a  I'annee,  ce  garfon  aux  yeux 
noirs,  rhomme  au  nez  rouge,  ce  geant  aux  larges  epaules. 

204.  Many  verbs  require  a  to  intro(hice  a  dependent 
infinitive:  aimer  a  jouer,  apprendre  a  lire,  avoir  a  tra- 
vailler,  cherchez  a  comprendre.  Some  of  the  most  com- 
mon of  these  are 


aider 

avoir 

s'exposer 

pousser 

appeler 

chercher 

inviter 

reduire 

s'appliquer 

condamner 

montrer 

reussir 

apprendre 

conduire 

parvenir 

songer 

s'attendre 

encourager 

porter 

tenir 

Some,  like  the  follo^^^ng,  may  talvc  a  or  may  govern  the 
infinitive  directly:  aimer,  descendre,  laisser,  penser,  pre- 
tendre,  venir. 

Many,  like  the  following,  take  sometimes  a  and  some- 
times de: 

aimer  decider  forcer 

conimeneer  demander  hesiter 

consentir  determiner  obliger 

continuer  essayer 

When  a  verb  has  more  than  one  possible  construction 
with  a  complementary  infinitive,  as,  venir  faire  quelque 
chose,  to  come  and  do  something;  venir  de  faire  quelque 
chose,  to  have  just  done  something;  venir  a  faire  quelque 
chose,  to  happen  to  do  sor7iething,  there  are  usuall}^  differ- 


prier  tacher 

refuser  tenter 

resoudre         venir 


134  UNINFLECTED   PARTS   OF   SPEECH 

ences  in  meaning  corresponding  to  the  different  preposi- 
tions. The  best  way  to  learn  these  is  from  the  text  in 
which  they  occur,  or  by  careful  study  of  the  particular 
verb  in  a  good  dictionary.  This  grammar,  therefore,  makes 
no  attempt  to  distinguish  such  uses. 

205,  Adjective  phrases  beginning  with  a  often  ex- 
press tendency,  destination,  purpose:  un  moulin  a  vent, 
une  tasse  a  the,  du  bois  a  bruler,  une  salle  a  manger,  un 
penchant  a  mentir. 

Complementary  phrases,  with  similar  force,  follow  many 
adjectives:  bon  a  manger,  pret  a  partir,  facile  a  faire,  utile 
a  savoir.  The  infinitive  in  such  phrases  often  has  the 
force  of  an  English  passive  infinitive.  So  also  after  cer- 
tain verbs:  elle  est  a  plaindre,  la  question  reste  a  dis- 
cuter  (see  §  178),  11  n'y  a  que  ga.  a  voir  ici. 

A  ^vith  etre  is  used  to  affirm  possession:  ce  livre  est  a 
moi,  ce  cheval  est-il  a  votre  frere? 

Note  the  use  of  a  with  verljs  of  thinking:  je  ne  pense 
pas  a  elle,  il  songe  a  cela  (see  §  202). 

206.  A  with  an  infinitive  often  has  a  force  similar  to 
that  of  en  with  a  present  participle  (gerund) :  il  a  gagne 
cent  dollars  a  vendre  des  moutons,  il  s'amuse  a  patiner, 
je  me  suis  essouffle  a  courir  si  vite. 

307.  Avant,  devant.  Avant  denotes  time  or  order, 
devant  is  used  of  place:  devant  la  maison,  il  etait  arrive 
avant  nous,  il  etait  assis  devant  nous.  Avant  is  the  oppo- 
site of  apres,  devant  of  derriere. 

308.  Avec  translates  ^vith  expressing  companionship 
or  instrumentality:  il  est  venu  avec  son  pere,  11  ecrit  avec 
un  crayon,  il  travaille  avec  ces  outils. 


PREPOSITIONS  135 

309.  Chez,  literally  at  the  house  of,  may  also  refer  to 
the  place  where  one  is  commonly  found  or  employed: 
chez  Marie,  at  Mary's  (house);  chez  le  dentiste,  at  the 
dentist's  (office).  It  is  sometimes  translated  among:  chez  les 
Grecs,  among  the  Greeks;  or  in,  chez  elle,  I'etrangete  sauvait 
la  gaucherie,  in  her,  quaintness  saved  from  awkwardness. 

210.  Dans,  en.  Both  denote  interiority,  but  dans 
stresses  especially  the  notion  of  bounds  or  limits  of  a  def- 
inite, enclosed  space:  dans  la  maison,  dans  la  rue,  dans 
Paris,  dans  le  jardin;  while  en  stresses  the  notion  of  a 
certain  place  or  space  as  distinguished  from  others,  en 
France,  as  distinguished  from  en  Italie  or  en  Espagne; 
en  Fair,  as  distinguished  from  dans  I'eau;  en  ville,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  la  campagne;  en  famille,  as  distin- 
guished from  en  societe  or  dans  le  monde ;  en  voiture,  not 
en  bateau  or  a  pied.  Dans  is  definite  and  is  felt  as  the 
opposite  of  hers;  as  regards  its  noun  it  is  relatively  em- 
phatic :  lui  dans  le  jardin,  moi  dehors.  En  is  general  and 
unemphatic,  and  the  contrast  felt  is  a  contrast  of  sub- 
stantives rather  than  of  prepositions.  Hence  in  modern 
French  en  is  rarely  found  before  a  definite  article  except 
where  the  article  has  been  retained  in  certain  common 
expressions,  usually  before  a  vowel  sound,  as,  en  I'air,  en 
Tan.    In  Old  French  en  was  more  generally  used. 

In  expressions  of  time,  dans  means  at  the  end  of,  en 
means  in  the  course  of:  je  partirai  dans  une  heure;  en 
quinze  minutes  je  vais  d'ici  a  B. ;  en  une  heure  je  fais  le 
trajet  de  B.  a  C,  ou  j'arriverai  done  dans  deux  heures  (et) 
un  quart.  I  shall  start  in  an  hour;  in  fifteen  minutes  I  can 
go  from  here  to  B.;  in  an  hour  I  can  make  the  journey  from 
B.  to  C,  where  I  shall  arrive,  therefore,  in  two  hours  and  a 
quarter  from  now. 


136  UNINFLECTED   PARTS  OF   SPEECH 

311.  De.  The  root  meanings  of  de  are  origin  or 
possession,  of,  and  separation,  from.  C'est  le  fils  de 
ma  voisine,  Paris,  capitale  de  la  France,  un  morceau  de 
fromage,  de  quel  parlent-ils?  aller  de  la  banque  a  la  poste, 
sortir  de  la  maison. 

Where  the  notion  of  agency  or  instrumentaUty  is  weak, 
de  has  a  force  simihir  to  unstressed  par  or  avec:  aime  de 
vos  parents,  frappe  de  cette  ressemblance,  suivi  dune 
troupe  d'esclaves,  ecrire  de  la  main  droite.  Compare 
with  puni  par  ses  narents,  frappe  par  un  assassin,  pour- 
suivi  par  ses  ennemis,  ecrire  avec  une  plume  (a  la  plume, 
if  adverbial  clause  of  manner).  Note  that  with  a  passive 
verb  de  commonly  introduces  the  agent  of  mental  action 
and  par  the  agent  of  a  material  act.  Avec  governs  the 
immediate  instrument,  —  while  the  de-phrase  shades  into 
an  adverbial  phrase  of  manner  rather  than  instrument: 
frapper  avec  un  baton,  des  deux  mains,  de  toutes  ses 
forces,  de  jour  ou  de  nuit,  d'une  maniere  etonnante, 
sauter  tout  d'un  coup,  arriver  d'un  bond. 

In  many  phrases  de  occurs  correhitive  with  a  or  en :  de 
la  page  cinq  (jusqu')a  la  page  dix,  de  jour  en  jour,  d'au- 
jourd'hui  en  quinze,  a  fortnight  from  to-day. 

212.  Many  adjectives  and  participles,  especially  those 
expressing  a  sentiment,  take  de  before  their  complement, 
as,  heureux  de  vous  voir,  etonne  de  sa  reponse,  digne 
d'une  recompense. 

213.  Nouns  commonly  require  de  before  a  dependent 
infinitive:  le  temps  de  chercher  mes  gants,  la  permission 
de  parler,  avoir  honte  de  revenir. 

214.  Most  impersonal  verbs  take  de  before  an  in- 
finitive which  is  the  logical  subject  of  the  clause:  il  est 


PREPOSITIONS 


137 


bien  de  savoir  cela;  peu  m'importe  de  tomber,  little  care 
I  if  I  fall. 

315.  After  que,  in  the  second  member  of  a  compari- 
son, de  is  used  before  an  infinitive,  unless  the  clause  is 
very  short:  j'aime  mieux  rester  que  de  partir  seule, 
mieux  vaut  etre  que  paraitre. 

216.  A  very  large  number  of  verbs  commonly  require 
de  to  introduce  a  dependent  infinitive.  Some  of  the  most 
common  are 


achever 

dire 

ordonner 

s'apercevoir 

douter 

oublier 

avertir 

ecrire 

pardonner 

blamer 

empecher 

se  passer 

cesser 

eviter 

persuader 

charger 

feindre 

promettre 

commander 

finir 

punir 

conseiller 

se  hater 

r^primander 

convenir 

louer 

sommer 

craindre 

menacer 

supplier 

defendre 

offrir 

se  vanter 

For  those  taking  sometimes  de  and  sometimes  a,  see 
§204. 

These  lists  might  be  greatly  extended,  but  the  only 
satisfactory  way  to  understand  the  different  meanings 
which  verbs  have  with  various  complements  is  to  note 
carefully  their  use  in  texts  and  to  study  each  verb  in  a 
dictionary  complete  enough  to  give  numerous  examples 
of  its  use  with  different  prepositions  or  with  a  direct  in- 
finitive complement. 

317.  Envers,  vers.  Envers  is  figurative,  vers  is  lit- 
eral.    Marchons  vers  cette  lueur,  nous   partirons   vers 


138  UNINFLECTED   PARTS   OF  SPEECH 

(les)  onze  heures,  il  s'est  bien  conduit  envers  nous,  il 
n'a  pas  ete  juste  envers  nous. 

318.  Pour.  Cause  or  destination  seem  to  be  the  root 
meanings  of  pour.  Pour  is  used  wdth  an  infinitive  to  ex- 
press purpose.  (Compare  the  use  of  pour  que  \\ath  the 
subjunctive.)  The  infinitive  construction  is  used  when 
the  subject  of  a  main  verb  and  dependent  infinitive  is  the 
same:  je  vous  ecris  pour  vous  dire;  il  est  venu  pour 
vaincre,  mais  il  est  parti  vaincu,  he  came  to  conquer,  but 
went  away  conquered.  The  subjunctive  construction  is 
used  when  the  subject  changes:  je  vous  ecris  pour  que 
vous  sachiez. 

Compare  the  use  of  aller  and  venir  with  the  pure  infin- 
itive, indicating  actual  performance  of  the  second  action: 
il  est  venu  vaincre  ses  ennemis,  he  came  and  conquered 
his  enemies;  je  suis  alle  voir  son  pere,  /  went  and  saw  his 
father. 

Pour  translates  EngHsh  for  with  expressions  of  future 
time:  j'ai  pris  cette  maison  pour  trois  ans,  /  have  taken 
that  house  for  three  years. 

Pour  also  translates  for  meaning  in  behalf  of.  J'ai 
achete  cela  pour  vous  (compare  with  je  vous  ai  achete 
cela). 

Note  also  such  expressions  as:  partir  pour  Paris,  essayer 
pour  la  demiere  fois,  dent  pour  dent,  pour  lors,  pour  sur, 
jour  pour  jour,  pour  la  plupart,  venir  pour  affaires,  to  come 
on  business.  Mort  pour  mort,  j'aime  mieux  etre  fusille; 
il  n'en  est  pas  plus  riche  pour  cela,  he  is  no  richer  on  that 
account. 

219.  Certain  idiomatic  uses  of  prepositions  appear  in 
the  follo^Adng  expressions : 


PREPOSITIONS  139 

tenir  a  voir,  to  he  determined  to  see. 

a  mon  avis,  in  viy  opinion. 

a  I'avenir,  in  the  future. 

s'il  vient  a  tomber,  if  he  happens  to  fall. 

a  temps,  in  time. 

c'est  bien  bon  a  vous,  it  is  very  kind  in  you. 

boire  dans  un  verre,  to  drink  from  a  glass. 

prendre    dans    une    boite    (un    tiroir),    to    take  from   a   box 

(drawer). 
d'apres  (selon,  sviivant)  sa  lettre,  according  to  his  letter. 
il  vient  de  partir,  he  has  just  gone  away. 
cet  enfant  tient  de  sa  mere,  that  child  takes  after  his  mother. 
changer  de  direction,  to  change  direction. 
se  tromper  de  chemin,  to  miss  one's  way. 
il  est  plus  age  que  moi  de  deux  ans,  et  plus  grand  de  trois 

centimetres,  he  is  two  years  older  and  an  inch  taller  than  I. 
menuisier  de  son  etat,  a  carpenter  by  trade. 
cette  bague  est  en  or,  that  ring  is  of  gold. 
docteur  en  medecine,  bachelier  es  (en  les)  lettres,  doctor  of 

medicine,  bachelor  of  arts. 
entrer  (sortir)  par  la  porte  (fenetre),  to  come  in  (go  out)  through 

the  door  (window). 
commencer  (finir)  par  dire,  to  say  first  (last). 
par  la  pluie,  in  the  rain. 
par  le  passe,  in  the  past. 

tomber  a  terre,  to  fall  to  the  ground  (from  above). 
tomber  par  terre,  to  fall  (over)  on  the  ground. 
avoir  sous  la  main,  to  have  at  hand. 
sous  les  yeux,  before  one's  eyes. 
sous  le  regne  de,  in  the  reign  of. 
avoir  de  I'argent  sur  vous,  to  have  money  about  you. 
deux  fois  sur  cinq,  two  times  in  five. 
cinq  metres  sur  trois,  five  meters  by  three. 

220.     Repetition.     A,   de,    and   en   are   regularly   re- 
peated before  each  governed  substantive,  others  are  re- 


140  UNINFLECTED   PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

peated  for  emphasis  or  contrast,  but  regularly  need  not 

be  repeated: 

elle  pense  a  Jean  et  a  Henri,      avec  Jean  et  Henri, 
pour  Jean  et  Henri,  en  France  et  en  Espagne, 

sur  terre  et  sur  mer,  sans  peur  et  sans  reproche, 

entre  Pierre  et  Jean,  les  parents  de  Pierre  et  de  Jean. 

321.  Many  phrases  compounded  with  de  or  a  are 
used  as  prepositions.    Some  of  them  are 

k  cause  de,  because  of.  a  cote  de,  beside. 

a  travers,  through.  au-dessous  de,  below. 

au-dessus  de,  above.  au  lieu  de,  instead  of. 

autour  de,  around.  aupres  de,  (venj)  near. 

en  face  de,  opposite.  jusqu'a,  until,  as  far  as. 

par  dela,  beyond.  par-dessous,  under. 

par-dessus,  over.  pres  de,  near. 

quant  a,  as  for.  vis-a-vis  de,  opposite. 

CONJUNCTIONS 

233.  Conjunctions  implying  futurity,  purpose,  con- 
cession, or  negation  are  followed  by  the  subjunctive.  The 
most  common  of  these  are 

afin  que,  pour  que,  in  order  that,     a  moins  que,  unless. 
avant  que,  before.  bien  que,  quoique,  although. 

pourvu  que,  provided  that.  sans  que,  ivithout. 

The  verb  introduced  by  sans  que  is  not  preceded  by  ne: 
sans  que  personne  le  sache. 

Some    conjunctive    expressions    take    the    subjunctive 
when  purpose  or  tendency  is  expressed  and  the  indicative 
with  statements  of  fact.    Such  are 
a  condition  que,  on  condition      au  (dans  le)  cas  oil,  in  case. 

that.  jusqu'a  ce  que,  iintil. 

de  faf on  (maniere)  que,  \   so        que,  that. 
de  (en)  sorte  que,  J  that. 


CONJUNCTIONS  141 

223.     Use  ni,  and  not  et  or  ou,  in  negative  expressions. 

Sans  pain  ni  viande,  without  bread  or  meat. 
Ni  menaces  ni  prieres  ne  I'emeuvent,  threats  and  prayers  have 
no  effect  on  him. 

Note  that  with  ni  each  finite  verb  must  be  preceded  by 
ne: 

U  ne  chante,  ne  rit,  ni  ne  pleure,  he  neither  sings,  nor  laughs, 
nor  cries. 

234.  Use  quand,  not  lorsque,  in  questions,  direct  or 
indirect.  Savez-vous  quand  il  va  revenir?  J'etais  ici 
quand  (lorsque)  vous  etes  arrive.  Do  not  use  quand  as  a 
relative  pronoun: 

Au  moment  ou  (not  quand)  cela  se  fit,  at  the  moment  when  that 
took  place. 

225.  In  contrasts,  use  tandis  que,  not  pendant  que. 
Pendant  que  expresses  simultaneous  action  without  con- 
trast, n  travaillait  tandis  que  vous  jouiez,  he  was  working 
xohile  you  were  playing;  but  il  est  parti  pendant  que  vous 
jouiez,  he  went  away  while  you  were  playing.  Maintenant 
il  est  riche,  tandis  que  son  ancien  patron  n'a  rien,  now 
he  is  rich  ichile  his  Jormer  employer  has  nothing;  but 
il  est  devenu  riche  pendant  que  nous  etions  absents, 
he  grew  rich  while  we  were  away. 

226.  Depuis  que  has  reference  to  time;  puisque  intro- 
duces a  statement  of  cause  or  reason: 

II  n'a  pas  plu  depuis  que  vous  etes  ici,  it  hasn't  rained  since 

you  have  been  here. 
Comment  quitter  I'ile  puisque  nous  n'avons  pas  de  bateau? 

how  leave  the  island  since  we  have  no  boat? 


142  UNINFLECTED   PARTS   OF   SPEECH 

3 3 7.     Distinguish  carefully  between  conjunctions  and 

corresponding  prepositions : 

after,  preposition,  apres;  conjunction,  apres  que. 

before,         "  avant;  "  avant  que,  with  in- 

finitive, avant  de. 

for,  "  pour;  "  pour  que  (car). 

since,  "  depuis;  "  depuis  que. 

until,  "  jusqu'a;  "  jusqu'a  ce  que. 

etc. 

328.  Que,  conjunction  or  pronoun,  nnist  not  be 
omitted   as   English   that  often  is: 

I  think  he  will  come,  je  pense  qu'il  viendra. 

Que  is  often  used  to  avoid  repeating  another  conjunc- 
tion: 
Pourvu  que  j'en  aie  le  temps  et  que  vous  le  vouliez,  provided 

I  Iiave  the  time  and,  you  ivish  it. 
Si  vous  le  voulez,  et  que  j'en  aie  le  temps,  //  you  wish  it  and 

I  have  time  enough. 

Que  used  for  si  always  takes  the  subjunctive;  other- 
wise que  governs  the  mode  which  would  be  used  after  the 
conjunction  replaced. 

Depuis  que  nous  sommes  ici  et  que  je  ne  la  vois  plus. 

329.  Note  the  word-order  which  places  the  emphatic 
adjective  or  adverb  at  the  end  of  the  word-group  in  ex- 
clamations after  que  or  comme : 

Que  ces  fleurs  sont  belles!    Comme  vous  dessinez  bien! 

INTERJECTIONS 

330.  Among  those  most  commonly  used  are 

Ah!     Ah!  (expressing  joy,  grief,  or  surprise). 
Aie!     Oh!  (pain). 


ABBREVIATIONS  143 

A  la  bonne  heure!     All  right!  (approval,  satisfaction). 
A   moi!    au   secours!    au   feu!    a   I'assassin!   au  voleurl 
Help!     Help!     Fire!     Murder!     Thieves! 
Allons!     Come  on!  (encouragement). 
Allons  done!     Nonsense,  don't  tell  me!  (incredulity). 
Bis!     Again!     Repeat!     Encore! 
Bon!    Bien!    Good! 
Chut!   (whispered)  Hist! 
Comment!     What!  (surprise). 
Comment  done!     Why,  certainly! 
En  avant!     Forward! 
Fi  (done)!     Oh  fie!  (disapproval). 
Gare !     Look  out  (for) ! 

Ouf !  expresses  suffocation  or  reUef  and  exhaustion. 
Par  exemple!    Indeed!    Nonsense!  (denial,  refusal). 
Que  si !     Yes,  I  say !     Que  non !     No  indeed ! 
Tiens!     Why  I  (surprise). 
Voyons!     Come,  now!  (encouragement). 

231.     In  a  sentence,  comme  is  exclamatory,  conunent 
interrogative  (direct  or  indirect  question). 

Comment  ehante-t-elle?    Hoiv  does  she  sing? 
Comme  elle  ehante  bien !   Hoio  well  she  sings! 


ABBREVIATIONS 

232.     The  following  are  the  commoner  abbreviations 
used  in  French: 

c.-a.-d.  =  c'est-a-dire,  that  is.  in-f°  =  in-foUo,  folio. 

Qie   0^   Qe  ^  compagiiie,   com-  J.-C.  =  Jesus-Clirist,     Jesus 

pany.  Christ. 

etc.  =  et  csetera.  M.  =  Monsieur,  Mr. 

fr.  or  f.  =  francs,  francs.  MM.  =  Messieurs,  Messrs. 

h.  =  heure,  hour.         ■  M.  R.  =  Monsieur  R.,  Mr.  R. 


144 


UNINFLECTED   PARTS  OF   SPEECH 


M*^  =  marchand,  merchant. 

M^  (pi.  M^^)  =  maitre,  is  used 
with  names  of  lawyers  instead 
of  monsieur. 

Mgr.  (pi.  NNSS.)  =  mon- 
seigneur,  jny  lord. 

M"^  (pi.  M'i^«)  =  Mademoi- 
selle, Miss. 


n°  =  nimi6ro,  number. 

R.  S.  V.  P.  =  Repondez  s'il 
vous  plait,  an  answer  is  re- 
quested. 

S.  A.  R.  =  Son  Altesse  Royale, 
His  Royal  Highness. 

s.-ent.  =  sous-entendu,  under- 
stood. 


M'"^      (pi.      M«^)  =  Madame,  S.  Exc.  =  Son  Excellence,  His 

Mrs.  Excellency. 

M.""  =  maison,  house,  firm.  S.  M.  (pi.  LL.  MM.)  =  Sa  IVIa- 
ms.     (pi.      mss.)  =  manuscrit,         jeste,  His  (Her)  Majesty. 

manuscript.  S.  S.  =  Sa  Saintet^,  His  Holi- 
N.-D.  =  Notre-Dame,      Our        ness. 

Lady.  s.  v.  p.  =  s'il  vous  plait,  if  you 
N.-S.  =  Notre -Seigneur,   Our         'please. 

Lord.  V^  =  veuve,  widow. 


1"     (in    titles)  =  premier,  the 

First. 
II  (in  titles)  =  deux,  the  Second. 
Le  XV^  siecle,  etc.  =  le  quin- 

zieme  siecle,  the  15th  century. 


\^^  (fem.  l^'^)  =  premier,  ^rs^ 

2^  =  deuxieme,  second. 

1°  =  primo,  firstly. 

ybre  ^  septembre,  September. 

^bre  ^  decembre,  December. 


TEXTS   AND   EXERCISES 


SELECTIONS  FROM  FRENCH  HISTORY 

Adapted  from  E.  Lavisse:  Premiere  Annee  d'Histoire  de  France 

I.     GUERRE    CONTRE    LES   ANGLAIS  —  JEANNE 
D'ARC 

La  France  eut  des  guerres  a  soutenir  contre  ses  voisins. 
La  principale  guerre  fut  contre  les  Anglais. 

Un  des  grands  seigneurs  de  France,  le  due  de  Norman- 
die,  avait  conquis  I'Angleterre  en  1066.  En  devenant  roi 
d'Angleterre,  il  resta  due  de  Normandie.  Ses  successeurs 
acquirent  encore  d'autres  provinces  frangaises,  si  bien 
que  les  dues  de  Normandie,  rois  d'Angleterre,  devinrent 
plus  puissants  en  France  que  les  rois  de  France. 

Aussi  nos  rois  firent-ils  la  guerre  aux  rois  d'Angleterre. 
Une  de  ces  guerres  dura  cent  ans.  Elle  commenga  en 
1336,  lorsque  le  roi  d'Angleterre,  fidouard  III,  pretendit 
devenir  roi  de  France. 

Ce  fut  une  guerre  terrible.  Les  rois  et  les  chevaliers  de 
France  y  combattirent  vaillamment,  mais  tres  mal,  sans 
discipline,  a  la  fagon  des  anciens  Gaulois.  Au  contraire, 
les  Anglais  combattirent  avec  beaucoup  d'ordre  et  de 
sang-froid,  comme  autrefois  les  Romains.  Les  Anglais 
furent  vainqueurs  a  Crecy  (1346),  a  Calais,  dont  ils 
s'emparerent  (1347),  a  Poitiers  (1356)  ou  le  roi  Jean  le 
Bon  fut  fait  prisonnier  apres  s'etre  defendu  heroique- 
ment.  Les  Anglais  furent  encore  vainqueurs  a  Azincourt 
(1415). 

Aux  desastres  de  la  guerre  avec  les  Anglais  vinrent 
s'aj outer  les  horreurs  de  la  guerre  civile  des  Armagnacs 
147 


148  TEXTS  AND   EXERCISES 

et  des  Bourguignons;  de  sorte  que,  a  ravenement  de 
Charles  VII,  en  1422,  la  France  etait  ruinee  et  presque 
tout  entiere  au  pouvoir  des  Anglais. 

Mais  les  Frangais,  en  combattant  contre  I'Angleterre, 
comprirent  qu'ils  etaient  un  seul  et  meme  peuple. 

lis  eurent  la  haine  de  I'etranger  et  I'amour  de  la  France. 
Ces  sentiments  inspirerent  Jeanne  d'Arc,  notre  grande  et 
sainte  heroine  nationale.  Elle  battit  les  Anglais,  delivra 
Orleans,  une  des  villes  que  possedait  encore  le  roi  de 
France  et  que  les  Anglais  voulaient  lui  prendre.  Elle  ren- 
dit  confiance  aux  Frangais  et  fit  sacrer  Charles  VII  a 
Rheims,  pour  qu'il  fut  reconnu  de  tons  comme  roi  de 
France,  car  les  rois  avaient  coutume  de  se  faire  sacrer 
dans  cette  ville. 

Jeanne  fut  faite  prisonniere  a  Compiegne.  Les  Anglais 
la  brulerent  a  Rouen  en  1431.  Mais  cette  abominable 
cruaute  ne  leur  rendit  pas  la  victoire.  Charles  VII  les 
chassa  du  royaume,  oii  ils  ne  garderent  plus  que  Calais 
(1453). 

ARTICLES  AND  PARTITIVES 

(See  §§  136-137;  §§  33-37) 

France,  Poitiers,  England,  Calais,  Normandy,  Agincourt. 
The  king  of  France,  the  king  of  England,  the  duke  of  Normandy; 
love  of  Normandy,  hatred  of  England,  the  Wctories  of  France. 

Good  John,  holy  Jeanne,  great  Charles,  mighty  Edward. 
DiscipUne,  coolness,  war,  order,  confidence,  crueltyr  With 
abominable  cruelty,  with  admirable  coolness,  with  astonishing 
confidence;  without  hatred,  without  order,  with  great  love  for 
France;  against  king  Edward,  against  duke  Charles. 

Pow^erless,  loveless,  fearless;  without  king  John,  without  duke 
Charles;  John,  the  king  of  England;  Charles,  the  king  of  France; 
Edward,  the  victor  at  Poitiers;  Jeanne,  the  prisoner  of  the 
Enghsh. 


ARTICLES   AND   PARTITIVES  149 

To  make  war,  to  fight  against  England,  to  ruin  Normandy; 
conquerors  fight  heroically,  good  kings  defend  their  people. 

In  Calais,  in  England,  in  Poitiers;  a  war  against  foreigners, 
the  custom  of  English  kings. 

Wars,  terrible  wars,  great  wars,  abominable  wars,  many  wars, 
no  wars,  civil  wars,  all  wars.  Some  cities,  no  cities,  great  cities, 
ruined  cities,  other  cities,  to  burn  cities,  such  (tel)  cities,  such 
wars. 

EngUshmen,  no  Englishmen,  Frenchmen,  no  Frenchmen,  all 
Frenclimen,  some  foreigners,  no  foreigners,  many  foreigners 
{use  both  beaucoup  and  bien),  most  foreigners,  most  cities,  most 
Frenchmen,  most  Romans,  all  Romans. 

No  Romans,  in  the  manner  of  ancient  Romans,  Roman  con- 
querors, some  old  Gauls,  other  Gauls,  no  Gauls,  many  Gauls,  all 
Gauls. 

More  (encore,  7iot  treated  as  an  adverb  of  quantity)  wars,  more 
Enghshmen,  more  French  prisoners,  more  great  lords,  more  dis- 
asters, more  horrors.  No  more  (plus)  ci\dl  wars,  no  more  con- 
fidence, no  more  lords,  no  more  dukes,  no  more  conquerors,  no 
more  kings. 

Provincial  cities,  conquered  provinces,  provincial  wars,  pro- 
vincial knights,  many  knights,  Norman  knights,  all  provinces, 
all  knights. 

So  many  (tant)  ruined  cities,  so  many  undiscipUned  knights, 
so  many  prisoners,  so  many  horrors,  so  many  disasters.  A  sort 
of  national  heroine,  a  sort  of  great  lord,  a  sort  of  hatred,  a  sort 
of  love,  a  sort  of  kingdom,  all  heroines,  all  disasters,  all  hatreds, 
all  kingdoms. 

Such  Romans,  such  kings,  such  (de  si)  good  kings,  such  great 
cities,  such  customs,  such  a  custom,  such  horrible  customs,  such 
confidence,  such  great  confidence,  such  cruelty,  such  abominable 
cruelty,  such  horrors,  such  great  horrors,  such  heroines,  such 
holy  heroines. 


150  TEXTS  AND   EXERCISES 

II.     LES    TROIS   ETATS 

Le  mot  fitat  signifie  condition,  profession,  metier 
(comme,  par  exemple,  dans  I'expression:  etat  militaire).  II 
y  avait  en  France  trois  etats  ou  conditions:  I'etat  du 
clerge,  qui  comprenait  les  pretres,  eveques  et  arche- 
veques,  les  moines  et  les  abbes;  I'etat  de  la  noblesse,  qui 
comprenait  tous  les  seigneurs;  et  le  troisieme  etat,  ou 
tiers  etat,  qui  comprenait  les  bourgeois  des  villes.  On 
appelait  Etats  generaux  la  reunion  des  deputes  du  clerge, 
de  la  noblesse  et  du  tiers  etat.  Les  fitats  generaux  furent 
reunis  pour  la  premiere  fois  sous  le  regne  de  Philippe  le 
Bel.  La  premiere  assemblee  celebre  est  celle  de  I'an 
1302. 

Les  rois  reunissaient  les  fitats  generaux  pour  leur  de- 
mander  aide  et  conseil,  c'est-a-dire  de  I'argent,  des  soldats, 
et  I'approbation  de  leurs  actes.  Les  fitats  generaux  au- 
raient  done  pu  devenir  une  assemblee  nationale  qui  aurait 
vote  I'impot,  fait  les  lois  et  gouverne  la  France  avec  le  roi. 

Malheureusement  il  n'en  fut  pas  ainsi.  Les  rois,  qui 
aimaient  mieux  gouverner  seuls,  convoquerent  les  Etats 
generaux  le  moins  souvent  possible.  Puis  les  trois  ordres 
ne  surent  pas  s'entendre  pour  empecher  le  roi  de  devenir 
trop  puissant.  Le  clerge  et  la  noblesse  avaient  des  pri- 
vileges qu'ils  voulaient  garder;  ils  avaient  I'orgueil  de 
leur  condition  et  ils  dedaignaient  le  tiers  etat.  Le  roi  con- 
tinua  done  a  faire  ses  volontes,  et  la  France  ne  devint  pas 
alors  un  pays  libre. 

POSSESSIVES  AND  DEMONSTRATIVES 

(See  §§  66-71) 

Those  lords,  those  are  lords,  his  lord,  her  lord,  our  lord,  their 
lord,  their  lords,  that  lord,  this  lord  or  that  lord. 

Those  liberties,  your  liberties,  ours,  his,  theirs,  yours,  mine, 


POSSESSIVES  AND   DEMONSTRATIVES  151 

hers,  the  citizens',  the  monks',  our  Uberties,  these  or  ours,  ours 
or  the  third  estate's. 

That  soldier,  those  soldiers,  these,  the  king's,  Phihp's,  her 
soldier,  the  silver  one. 

That  money,  his,  your  money,  mine,  her  money,  theirs,  the 
king's,  that  of  the  States  General,  that  is  money,  that  money  is 
mine  (a  moi),  that  money  is  his,  that  money  is  hers,  that  money 
is  ours. 

That  condition  and  this  one,  those  lords  and  these,  these 
cities  and  those,  our  bishops  and  yours,  this  meeting  and  that 
one,  this  time  and  that  one,  tliis  tax  and  that  one,  his  approval 
and  yours,  her  approval  and  the  king's,  her  pride  and  the  king's, 
my  will  and  his,  his  will  and  mine,  her  will  and  the  archbishop's. 

That  assembly,  that  pride,  that  approval,  that  tax,  that  law, 
that  state,  that  example,  that  bishop,  that  abbot,  that  law,  that 
order,  that  reign,  that  aid,  that  advice,  that  act,  that  privilege, 
that  country. 

This  assembly,  the  first  one,  the  last  one,  the  French  one,  the 
one  of  Philip's  reign,  the  one  we  demand,  that  of  the  year  1300. 

That  is  a  large  city,  that  city  is  large,  those  are  citizens  of 
Paris,  those  citizens  are  going  to  Paris,  that  is  a  meeting  of  the 
three  orders,  that  meeting  is  famous,  that  is  the  king  of  France, 
that  king  is  famous. 

That  is  my  trade,  that  business  is  better  (valoir  mieux)  than 
mine,  that  is  his  condition,  that  condition  is  better  than  his, 
that  is  our  city,  this  city  is  larger  than  ours,  those  are  your  sol- 
diers, those  soldiers  are  the  king's,  those  soldiers  are  yours,  those 
soldiers  are  more  famous  than  the  king's,  those  soldiers  are  not 
so  (moins)  famous  as  ours  and  theirs. 

The  king  says  this,  the  bishop  says  that,  the  citizens  like  this 
better  than  that,  the  lords  demand  this,  the  clergy  demands 
that. 

The  nobiUty  despises  what  the  citizens  love;  the  king  does 
not  understand  what  the  nobility  is  doing;  do  you  understand 
what  is  doing  that? 

Do  you  understand  what  we  are  doing?    Do  you  understand 


152  TEXTS  AND   EXERCISES 

what  the  third  estate  might  have  become?    Do  you  understand 
what  keeps  the  nobihty  from  becoming  too  powerful? 

Do  you  know  what  makes  a  free  country?  Do  you  know 
what  the  deputies  are  asking?  That  is  what  we  do  not  under- 
stand. 

III.     FRANCOIS    PREMIER   EX    CHARLES-QUINT 

En  1515  Frangois  P""  semblait  le  plus  puissant  roi  du 
monde;  mais  on  vit  bientot  en  Europe  un  prince  plus 
puissant  que  lui:  c'etait  Charles  d'Autriche.  Le  pere  de 
Charles  d'Autriche  etait  Philippe  le  Beau,  fils  de  Maxi- 
milien,  empereur  d'Allemagne,  et  de  Marie  de  Bourgogne. 
Philippe  le  Beau  possedait  les  Pays-Bas,  I'Artois,  et  la 
Franche-Comte.  II  mourut  jeune  encore  et  son  fils  Charles 
d'Autriche  herita  de  ces  belles  provinces. 

La  mere  de  Charles  d'Autriche  etait  Jeanne  la  Folle, 
fille  de  Ferdinand  le  Catholique  et  d'Isabelle  de  Castille, 
qui  possedaient  a  eux  deux  TEspagne,  le  Roussillon,  le 
royaume  de  Naples  et  d'immenses  territoires  en  Ame- 
rique.  Du  cote  de  sa  mere,  Charles  eut  done  I'Espagne, 
le  Roussillon,  Naples,  les  territoires  d'Amerique. 

En  1519,  Maximilien,  empereur  d'Allemagne,  mourut. 
Charles  d'Autriche,  qui  etait  son  petit-fils,  fut  elu  em- 
pereur et  prit  le  nom  de  Charles-Quint,  ce  qui  veut  dire 
Charles  Cinq.  Charles-Quint  possedait  done  une  grande 
partie  de  I'Europe  et  de  I'Amerique;  c'etait  un  prince  tres 
instruit  et  tres  reflechi,  quoiqu'il  fut  tres  jeune. 

Frangois  P""  fut  tres  irrite  de  I'election  de  Charles- 
Quint  comme  empereur  d'Allemagne,  car  il  avait  espere 
lui-m^me  etre  elu  empereur.  II  fit  la  guerre  a  Charles- 
Quint.  II  n'avait  pas  autant  d'fitats  que  Charles,  mais  il 
etait  bien  obei  dans  son  royaume,  ou  il  trouvait  autant 
d'argent  et  de  soldats  qu'il  voulait.    II  eut  pour  allies  des 


INTERROGATIVES   AND   COMPARATIVES         153 

princes  italiens,  qui  trouvaient  Charles-Quint  trop  puis- 
sant en  Italic,  et  des  princes  allemands,  qui  le  trouvaient 
trop  puissant  en  Allemagne.  II  fit  aussi  alliance  avec  Soli- 
man,  le  sultan  ou  empereur  des  Turcs.  Avec  le  secours  de 
ces  allies,.  Frangois  P""  put  resister  a  Charles-Quint. 

INTERROGATIVES  AND  COMPARATIVES 

(See  §§  51-53,  81-83;  §§  133-135,  191) 

Who  seemed  the  most  powerful  king  in  the  world?  Who  in- 
herited the  finest  pro\7nces  in  Europe?  Whom  did  you  see  in 
Paris?    Who  was  more  powerful  than  Francis  First? 

Was  Francis  I  less  powerful  than  Charles  V?  Was  the  em- 
peror as  powerful  as  Francis  I?  Who  was  father  of  Charles  of 
Austria?  What  king  died  young?  What  provinces  had  he  in- 
herited? 

Whose  son  was  Charles?  Whose  father  was  Maximilian? 
From  whom  did  Charles  inherit  the  Low  Countries?  To  whom 
did  Philip  leave  Artois? 

Are  you  younger  than  Philip?  Is  Charles  as  young  as  Francis? 
Who  is  younger  than  Mary?  Maximihan  is  not  so  young  as 
you. 

What  means  "Charles  Fifth"?  Do  you  know  what  Charles- 
Quint  means?  What  does  he  mean?  Do  you  know  what  means 
"Crazy  Jane"?  Who  did  that?  What  did  that?  What  do  you 
see?    Whom  do  you  see? 

Who  was  the  most  learned  prince  in  Germany?  What  name 
did  he  take?  What  territories  did  he  possess?  Against 
whom  did  Francis  I  make  war?  Who  had  as  many  states  as 
Charles? 

What  made  him  so  powerful?  With  what  was  he  able  to  re- 
sist Charles?  Of  what  are  we  speaking?  Of  what  are  you 
thinking?    What  do  you  think  of  Charles  V? 

Which  of  those  provinces  is  the  finest  in  Europe?  Of  which 
are  you  thinking?  Of  which  are  you  speaking?  Which  of  those 
princes  are  as  thoughtful  as  Philip? 


154  TEXTS  AND   EXERCISES 

Wliich  of  those  kingdoms  is  the  most  powerful?  Of  which 
are  you  thinking?  Of  which  are  you  speaking?  What  terri- 
tories did  Charles  possess?  Of  which  are  we  thinking?  Of 
which  is  the  Sultan  speaking? 


IV.     HENRI    QUATRE 

Henri  III  etant  mort  sans  enfants,  I'heritier  de  la  cou- 
ronne  fut  Henri  de  Navarre,  qui  devint  le  roi  Henri  IV 
(1589-1610). 

Depuis  son  enfance,  le  futur  Henri  IV  etait  aux  armees. 
II  avait  assiste  a  bien  des  batailles  et  a  bien  des  prises  de 
ville,  et  toujours  on  I'avait  vu  combattre  au  premier 
rang. 

La  plupart  des  provinces  avaient  pour  gouverneurs  des 
nobles  du  parti  de  la  Ligue.  Le  chef  de  la  Ligue  etait 
Mayenne,  frere  du  due  Henri  de  Guise.  Ces  gouver- 
neurs ne  voulaient  pas  reconnaitre  Henri  IV  pour  roi. 
lis  recevaient  du  roi  d'Espagne,  Philippe  II,  de  I'argent 
et  des  troupes.  Henri  IV  demanda  des  secours  a  la 
reine  d'Angleterre,  Elisabeth,  et  a  quelques  princes  d'Alle- 
magne;  mais  il  compta  surtout  sur  lui-meme. 

Mayenne  vint  I'attaquer  en  Normandie  avec  une 
grande  armee.  Un  moment,  Henri  se  crut  perdu,  mais 
a  la  fin  il  fut  vainqueur,  et  I'armee  de  Mayenne  s'enfuit 
devant  la  petite  troupe  du  roi  de  France. 

Henri  pardonna  a  tous  ceux  qui  s'etaient  revoltes  contre 
lui.  II  voulut  que  ses  sujets  s'aimassent  les  uns  les  autres, 
et  qu'il  n'y  eM  plus  jamais  de  guerres  civiles  en  France. 
II  aimait  beaucoup  les  paysans.  II  aurait  voulu  que 
chacun  d'eux  put  mettre  le  dimanche  «la  poule  au  pot.)) 
II  honora  de  son  amitie  Olivier  de  Serres,  qui  etait, 
comme   Sully,    un   grand    ami  de  I'agriculture.     Mais  il 


DISJUNCTIVE   PERSONALS  AND   RELATIVES     155 

aimait  aussi  les  ouvriers.  II  crea  des  fabriques  de  draps, 
de  tapis,  de  verres,  de  cristaux. 

On  ne  fabriquait  plus  d'etoffes  de  soie  en  France,  et 
pourtant  les  nobles  et  les  riches  bourgeois  en  portaient. 
II  fallait  aller  acheter  de  la  soie  en  Italie.  Henri  IV  vou- 
lut  qu'on  elevat  en  France  des  vers  a  soie;  il  fit  planter 
des  muriers,  dont  la  feuille  nourrit  le  ver  a  soie. 

On  lui  envoya  la  premiere  paire  de  bas  de  soie  qui  fut 
fabriquee  dans  le  royaume.  II  la  mit  tout  de  suite  et  il  la 
faisait  voir  a  tout  le  monde.  II  etait  aussi  fier  ce  jour-la 
que  s'il  avait  remporte  une  victoire. 

Car  ce  grand  roi  n'etait  pas  seulement  un  guerrier;  il 
aimait  tout  ce  qu'un  prince  doit  aimer,  I'agriculture,  le 
commerce,  I'industrie,  qui  enrichissent  le  pays. 

DISJUNCTIVE  PERSONALS  AND  RELATIVES 

(See  §§  55,  57;  §§  72-80) 

A.  Translate  each  expression,  and  repeat,  inflecting,  e.g. 
moi,  qui  les  vols;  toi,  qui  les  vois;  lui,  qui  les  voit;  elle,  qui  les 
voit;  nous,  qui  les  voyons,  etc. 

I,  who  see  them;  you,  whom  he  sees.  I,  who  have  been  pres- 
ent at  many  battles.    We,  who  fight  in  the  first  rank. 

He,  whom  they  will  not  recognize  as  king.  You,  from  whom 
they  receive  money  and  troops.    She,  upon  whom  I  counted. 

They,  from  whom  she  asked  help.  I,  who  am  victor.  He, 
who  has  forgiven  them.  They,  who  have  revolted.  It  is  against 
me  that  they  have  revolted. 

B.  He,  who  loves  the  peasants.  He,  whom  the  peasants 
love.  He,  of  whom  the  peasants  are  speaking.  He,  whom  the 
peasants  obey.  He,  who  thinks  of  the  peasants.  He,  who 
honors  us  with  his  friendship. 

They,  whom  we  honor  with  our  friendship.  She,  whose 
friendship  honors  us.     He,  whose  friendship  we  desire. 


156  TEXTS  AND  EXERCISES 

In  the  expressions  under  B,  suppose  the  commas  omitted 
and  repeat  the  expressions.  (Celui  qui  aime,  etc.)  What  kind 
of  pronouns  then  take  the  place  of  the  disjunctive  personals? 

C.  The  king  without  whose  friendship  that  industry  would 
die.  The  mulberry-trees,  the  leaves  of  which  feed  the  silk- 
worms; the  mulberry-trees,  the  leaves  of  which  the  silkworms 
eat;  the  mulberry-trees,  without  whose  leaves  the  silkworms 
would  die. 

The  victory  of  which  they  are  so  proud;  the  king,  of  whose 
friendship  they  are  so  proud. 

What  enriches  the  country  you  are  speaking  of?  What  feeds 
the  silkworms  3^ou  are  thinking  of? 

The  king  wishes  what  the  peasants  desire.  The  king  loves 
what  will  em-ich  the  kingdom.  The  nobles  do  not  know  what 
we  are  speaking  of. 

Show  us  what  you  are  doing.  Show  us  what  feeds  the  silk- 
worms. Tell  us  what  they  are  planting.  Tell  us  what  makes 
them  go  to  Italy. 

V.     LOUIS    QUATORZE 

Louis  XIV  (1643-1715)  commeiiQa  a  gouverner  par  lui- 
meme  en  1661.  Ses  principaux  ministres  furent  alors 
Colbert  et  Louvois. 

Louis  XIV  a  un  grand  nom  dans  I'histoire,  parce  qu'il 
a  ete  longtemps  heureux  dans  son  gouvernement  et 
dans  ses  guerres,  puis  parce  que  de  grands  ecrivains  et  de 
grands  artistes  ont  vecu  de  son  temps  et  qu'il  a  et^  leur 
protecteur. 

Les  plus  grands  ecrivains  du  siecle  de  Louis  XIV  sont: 
Corneille  et  Racine,  poetes  qui  ont  ecrit  des  tragedies; 
Moliere,  qui  a  ecrit  des  comedies  en  vers  et  en  prose;  Boi- 
leau,  poete  qui  a  ecrit  des  lettres  et  des  satires;  La  Fon- 
taine, poete  qui  a  ecrit  des  fables;  Descartes,  qui  a  ete  un 
grand  philosophe;  Pascal,  qui  a  ete  un  grand  savant  en 


LOUIS  QUATORZE  157 

meme  temps  qu'un  grand  ecrivain;  Bossuet,  eveque  de 
Meaux,  qui  a  prononce  d'admirables  sermons  et  des  orai- 
sons  funebres,  et  qui  a  compose  de  beaux  livres  d'histoire 
et  de  philosophic  pour  Tinstruction  de  son  eleve  le  dauphin, 
fils  de  Louis  XIV ;  Fenelon,  archeveque  de  Cambrai,  qui 
a  compose  de  beaux  livres  pour  I'instruction  de  son  eleve, 
le  due  de  Bourgogne,  petit-fils  de  Louis  XIV. 

II  y  a  eu  aussi  de  grands  artistes  au  temps  de  Louis 
XIV.  Les  plus  celebres  sont  les  peintres  Lesueur,  Claude 
Lorrain,  Poussin,  Mignard;  le  sculpteur  Paget;  les  archi- 
tectes  Perrault,  qui  a  construit  la  colonnade  du  Louvre,  a 
Paris,  et  Mansard,  qui  a  construit  une  grande  partie  du 
palais  de  Versailles. 

La  plupart  de  ces  ecrivains  et  de  ces  artistes  ont 
celebre  les  gioires  de  Louis  XIV.  Mais  les  gloires  de 
Louis  XIV  n'ont  pas  dure  jusqu'a  la  fin  de  son  regne. 
Louis  XIV  etait  un  roi  trop  absolu.  II  ne  permettait  a 
personne  de  discuter  ses  ordres.  II  disait  que  la  volonte 
de  Dieu  est  que  les  sujets  obeissent  sans  discuter. 

Sa  vie  privee  fut  longtemps  scandaleuse,  et  personne 
n'osait  lui  reprocher  sa  conduite. 

Louis  XIV  depensa  sans  compter  I'argent  de  ses  sujets 
pour  satisfaire  son  orgueil;  sa  cour  et  les  palais  qu'il  fit 
batir,  surtout  le  palais  de  Versailles,  couterent  des  sommes 
enormes,  qui  s'ajouterent  a  celles  qu'il  fallut  depenser 
pour  la  guerre. 

Les  souffrances  du  peuple  furent  epouvantables  vers  la 
fin  du  regne.  Aussi  Louis  XIV,  au  moment  ou  il  mourut 
(1715),  etait  maudit  de  tout  son  peuple. 


158  TEXTS  AND   EXERCISES 

TWO   OBJECTIVE   PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  — PAST 
PARTICIPLES 

(See  §§  63-65;  §§  91-92.  110-180) 

(When  possible,  repeat  sentences,  inflecting  the  direct  or  the  in- 
direct object;  also  changing  from  affirmative  to  negative.) 

Have  you  read  the  letters  he  has  written?  He  wrote  them  to 
me  —  to  you  —  to  him,  etc. 

Write  them  to  her.  Do  not  write  us  any.  Didn't  he  write 
them  any? 

Great  authors  have  composed  those  books  which  you  have  read. 

I  have  seen  the  colonnade  that  Perrault  has  built  for  Louis 
XIV.    It  is  in  Paris,  and  I  have  seen  it  there. 

Permit  it  to  me.  I  do  not  permit  it  to  you.  Do  not  allow  it 
to  them.  Who  told  you  so?  Do  not  tell  me  so.  They  told 
him  so. 

He  regrets  the  conduct  for  which  I  reproached  him.  Don't 
reproach  me  for  it.    Reproach  them  for  it. 

She  has  reproached  herself  for  it.  He  has  reproached  himself 
for  it.  We  have  reproached  ourselves  for  it.  They  have  re- 
proached themselves  for  it. 

The  books  they  have  written;  the  tragedies  they  have  written; 
the  sermons  they  have  written;  the  orations  they  have  written. 

The  great  artists  there  have  been;  the  pupils  he  has  had;  the 
poets  there  have  been;  the  grandsons  she  has  had;  the  comedies 
there  have  been. 

The  sums  they  have  cost.  The  orders  we  have  discussed. 
The  sums  he  has  expended. 

The  palaces  he  has  had  built  for  himself;  the  portions  which 
Perrault  has  made;  the  portions  which  Louis  has  had  constructed. 

The  conduct  he  has  allowed  himself;  the  orders  he  has  al- 
lowed himself  to  give;  the  pride  with  which  she  has  reproached 
herself. 

They  died  this  morning;  she  died  accursed  of  her  whole  peo- 
ple; the  people  have  cursed  their  ministers;  which  ministers  did 
the  people  curse? 


LOUIS  QUINZE  159 

Fenelon  has  composed  beautiful  books.  Which  books  has 
Fenelon  composed?  For  whom  did  he  compose  them?  Did  he 
compose  them  for  him  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV? 


VI.     LOUIS    QUINZE 

Dans  les  dernieres  annees  du  regne  de  Louis  XV, 
I'Angleterre  commandait  sur  toutes  les  mers,  et  elle  avait 
conquis  un  empire  colonial  immense. 

La  Prusse  etait  devenue  redoutable,  et  elle  allait  etre 
constamment  I'ennemie  de  la  France. 

Une  autre  grande  puissance  etait  nee.  C'etait  la  Rus- 
sie,  qui  devint  un  des  premiers  Etats  de  1' Europe  a  partir 
du  regne  de  Pierre  le  Grand.    En  France,  tout  allait  mal. 

Louis  XV  depensa  tant  d' argent  que  le  gouvernement, 
a  la  fin,  fit  banqueroute,  c'est-a-dire  refusa  de  payer  ce 
qu'il  devait. 

Louis  XIV  avait  abuse  deja  du  pouvoir  royal;  mais 
Louis  XV  ne  s'en  servit  que  pour  mener  une  vie  honteuse. 
II  rendit  le  pouvoir  royal  odieux  a  tous  les  bons  Frangais. 

Alors  tous  les  Frangais  intelligents  et  patriotes  de- 
manderent  la  reforme  d'un  gouvernement  que  personne 
n'aimait  plus  et  qui  ne  faisait  plus  que  du  mal  a  notre 
pays. 

lis  voulaient  que  le  roi  ne  commandat  plus  a  ses  sujets 
comme  un  maitre  a  des  esclaves. 

lis  voulaient  la  liberte  de  la  presse,  c'est-a-dire  la  liberty 
pour  les  Frangais  d'exprimer  leurs  opinions  par  les  jour- 
naux  et  par  les  livres. 

lis  voulaient  la  liberte  du  travail,  c'est-a-dire  que  tous 
les  Frangais  pussent  travailler  comme  ils  I'entendraient, 
au  lieu  d'etre  obliges  d'entrer  dans  une  corporation  et  de 
se  soumettre  a  des  reglements  qui  genaient  le  travail. 


160  TEXTS  AND   EXERCISES 

lis  voulaient  aussi  que  tous  les  Frangais  fussent  ^gaux 
entre  eux.  Les  nobles  et  le  clerge  avaient  toutes  sortes  de 
privileges;  ils  ne  payaient  pas  d'impots.  Au  contraire,  les 
pauvres  paysans,  mines  par  les  impots  du  roi,  payaient 
aussi  des  redevances  a  leurs  seigneurs  et  ils  etaient  obliges 
de  travailler  pour  ceux-ci. 

Les  ecrivains  demandaient  done  que  I'impot  fut  paye 
par  tout  le  monde,  et  que  les  droits  feodaux,  que  les  pay- 
sans payaient  aux  seigneurs,  fussent  abolis. 

La  France  etait  exploitee  comine  une  propriete  par  le 
roi  et  par  les  nobles.  Et  pourtant  le  roi  et  les  nobles 
avaient  laisse  perir  le  vieil  honneur  de  la  France.  lis 
avaient  montre  qu'ils  n'etaient  plus  capables  de  la  gou- 
verner.  Tous  les  Frangais  intelligents  voulaient  que  la 
France  se  gouvernat  elle-meme,  et  que  son  gouvernement 
fut  juste. 

Les  ecrivains  frangais  du  temps  de  Louis  XV  honorerent 
la  France  que  le  gouvernement  de  ce  roi  deshonorait. 
Ils  furent  admires  et  imites  dans  le  monde  entier.  La 
France  represente  dans  le  monde,  depuis  ce  temps-la,  les 
idees  de  justice,  de  liberte  et  d'humanite. 

Louis  XV  mourut  en  1774.  La  nouvelle  de  sa  mort  ne 
fit  pleurer  personne  dans  le  royaume.  Lui  qu'on  avait 
commence  par  tant  aimer,  on  le  meprisait.  II  a  6te  le 
plus  mauvais  roi  de  toute  notre  histoire.  Ce  n'est  pas 
assez  de  detester  sa  memoire,  il  faut  Texecrer. 

FUTURE  AND   CONDITIONAL 

(See  §§  98-100,  163-164;  §§  114-116,  165-168) 

Thou  shalt  not  abuse  the  royal  power;  thou  shalt  not  spend 
so  much  money;  thou  shalt  pay  what  thou  owest;  thou  shalt  not 
lead  a  life  of  shame. 

If  he  spends  so  much  money,  he  will  be  bankrupt;  when  he  is 


FUTURE  AND   CONDITIONAL  161 

bankrupt,  he  will  refuse  to  pay  what  he  owes;  if  he  should  re- 
fuse to  pay  what  he  owes,  he  would  make  himself  odious. 

Can  he  have  failed?  If  he  refuses  to  pay  what  he  owes,  he 
must  have  failed.  Even  if  he  has  failed,  he  will  not  refuse  to 
pay  what  he  owes  you;  even  though  he  had  failed,  he  would  not 
refuse  to  pay  what  he  owes  us. 

He  has  probably  been  leading  a  shameful  life;  no  doubt  he 
has  already  abused  the  royal  power.  From  what  the  papers 
say,  he  has  gone  into  insolvency. 

If  the  king  will  no  longer  govern  France,  she  will  govern  her- 
self. If  he  has  despoiled  France,  she  will  govern  herself.  When 
he  is  no  longer  able  to  govern  her,  she  will  govern  herself. 

If  he  were  no  longer  able  to  govern  her,  she  would  govern 
herself.  If  he  had  despoiled  her,  she  would  now  be  governing 
herself.  If  he  had  despoiled  her,  she  would  have  governed  her- 
self. 

As  soon  as  all  Frenchmen  are  equal,  feudal  rights  will  be 
abolished.  They  knew  that  as  soon  as  all  Frenchmen  were 
equal,  the  tax  would  be  paid  by  everybody. 

If  all  Frenchmen  were  equal  now,  the  tax  would  be  paid  by 
everyone.  If  the  feudal  rights  should  be  abolished  to-morrow, 
the  tax  would  be  paid  by  everyone.  If  feudal  rights  had  been 
abolished  yesterday,  the  nobles  would  now  be  paying  taxes. 

When  France  governs  herself,  her  government  will  be  just. 
If  France  is  governing  herself,  she  will  no  longer  be  despised. 
When  the  peasants  can  work  as  they  please,  France  will  be  ad- 
mired the  world  over. 

Under  Louis  XV,  they  could  not  work  as  they  pleased.  They 
could  not  now  work  as  they  pleased,  if  they  were  forced  to  join 
a  trade-guild.  If  the  king  had  commanded  them,  as  a  master 
his  slaves,  they  could  not  have  worked  as  they  pleased. 

Russia  was  to  be  one  of  the  first  states  of  Europe;  she  ought 
to  have  governed  herself  from  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great. 

Prussia  ought  not  to  be  always  the  enemy  of  France;  I 
should  like  to  see  her  represent  ideas  of  justice,  hberty,  and 
humanity. 


162  TEXTS   AND   EXERCISES 

One  cannot  too  strongly  detest  the  memory  of  Louis  XV. 
One  cannot  too  strongly  demand  the  liberty  of  the  press  and  the 
liberty  of  labor. 

VII.     LA   REVOLUTION 

Les  fitats  generaux  se  reunirent  a  \^ersailles  le  5  mai 
1789. 

Les  deputes  du  tiers  etat  etaient  plus  nombreux  que 
ceux  du  clerge  et  de  la  noblesse  reunis,  et  ils  voulurent  que 
les  trois  ordres  deliberassent  ensemble,  et  que  les  decisions 
des  fitats  generaux  fussent  prises  a  la  majorite  des  votants. 

Les  deputes  de  la  noblesse  et  du  clerge  refuserent 
d'abord  d'y  consentir,  et  le  roi  appuya  leur  resistance. 

Le  20  juin  1789,  les  deputes  du  tiers  etat  jurerent  dans 
la  salle  du  Jeu  de  Paume  de  ne  pas  se  separer  sans  avoir 
donne  une  Constitution  a  la  France. 

Le  roi,  le  clerge  et  la  noblesse  cederent  successivement; 
les  trois  ordres  delibererent  ensemble,  et  les  Etats  gene- 
raux prirent  le  nom  d'Assemblee  nationale  constituante. 

Les  preparatifs  militaires  de  la  cour  amenerent  une  in- 
surrection.   La  Bastille  fut  prise  le  14  juillet  1789. 

Louis  XXI  essaya  de  s'enfuir,  mais  il  fut  arrete.  II 
jura  alors  d'observer  la  constitution  votee  par  I'Assemblee 
nationale  constituante,  qui  se  separa  au  mois  de  sep- 
tembre  1791. 

La  Constituante  a  detruit  le  pouvoir  absolu  des  rois, 
elle  a  donne  a  tons  les  Frangais  la  liberte  et  I'egalite. 
Elle  a  organise  la  France. 

L'Assemblee  legislative  succeda  a  I'Assemblee  consti- 
tuante au  mois  de  septembre  1791.  Comme  I'Autriche 
faisait  des  armements  contre  la  France,  Louis  XVI  lui 
declara  la  guerre;  mais  personne  ne  croyait  a  sa  sincerite, 
et  le  peuple  de  Paris  envahit  les  Tuileries  le  10  aout  1792. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE  163 

La  Convention  nationale,  qui  se  reunit  en  septembre 
1792,  etablit  la  Republique.  Elle  condamna  a  mort 
Louis  XVI,  qui  fut  execute  le  21  Janvier  1793. 

La  Terreur,  pendant  laquelle  perissent  des  milliers  de 
victimes,  dure  jusqu'a  ce  que  Robespierre  meure  sur 
I'echafaud  (juillet  1794). 

La  Convention  nationale  se  separe  en  1795. 

En  1800  les  guerres  de  la  Revolution  semblaient  finies. 

Les  pays  de  la  rive  gauche  du  Rhin,  qui  jadis  apparte- 
naient  a  des  princes  allemands,  appartenaient  a  la  France. 

La  Belgique,  qui  jadis  appartenait  a  TAutriche,  ap- 
partenait  a  la  France. 

La  Hollande,  qui  avait  ete  si  longtemps  notre  ennemie, 
etait  devenue  la  Republique  batave,  et  elle  etait  notre 
alliee. 

La  Republique  suisse  avait  ete  reorganisee  par  la  France. 

En  Italie,  dans  ce  pays  qui  avait  si  longtemps  appar- 
tenu  a  nos  ennemis  d'Autriche  et  d'Espagne,  nous  avions 
fonde  des  republiques,  qui  etaient  nos  alliees  et  nos  pro- 
tegees. 

En  huit  ans,  de  1792  a  1800,  la  Revolution  frangaise 
avait  fait  pour  la  grandeur  de  la  patrie  plus  que  Fran- 
gois  I",  Henri  IV,  Richelieu,  Mazarin,  et  Louis  XIV. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 

(See§§  117-125) 

He  wishes  the  States  General  to  meet  at  Versailles.  He  orders 
the  decisions  to  be  made  by  a  majority  vote.  They  will  meet  in 
the  tennis  court,  although  the  king  has  refused  it  to  them. 

The  king  \nll  yield,  that  the  Assembly  may  not  separate 
without  ha\dng  given  France  a  constitution.  It  is  right  for  the 
three  estates  to  deliberate  together. 


164  TEXTS  AND  EXERCISES 

I  am  glad  the  Bastille  is  captured.  I  am  surprised  that  it 
was  captured  so  easily.  I  am  sorry  the  deputies  of  the  nobility 
are  so  numerous.    I  am  sorry  they  refused  to  deliberate  together. 

I  do  not  say  the  king  is  a  wicked  man.  I  am  sorry  he  tried  to 
run  away.    I  do  not  believe  he  has  been  arrested. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  deputies  to  give  France  a  constitution. 
Do  you  believe  the  people  has  invaded  the  Tuileries? 

Do  you  believe  the  king  is  a  prisoner  in  the  Temple? 

I  believe  the  Convention  will  meet,  but  I  do  not  believe  it 
will  condemn  the  king  to  death. 

He  is  the  only  king  of  France  who  has  died  on  the  scaffold. 

Vahny  is  the  most  celebrated  victory  that  that  general  has 
won. 

Robespierre  and  Marat  are  the  most  detestable  men  that  I 
know. 

Louis  IX  is  the  best  king  who  ever  reigned  in  France.  Riche- 
lieu is  the  greatest  cardinal  France  has  known.  RicheUeu  is  the 
greatest  of  the  cardinals  who  have  governed  France. 

Danton  and  Camille  Desmoulins  are  the  greatest  of  the  Mon- 
tagnards  who  died  on  the  scaffold. 

Change  primary  (present  and  future)  tenses  of  the  main  verbs 
to  the  corresponding  secondary  (imperfect  indicative  and  pres- 
ent conditional)  tenses,  and  repeat  the  sentences. 


VIII.     NAPOLEON 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  est  ne  a  Ajaccio,  le  15  aout  1769. 
Son  pere  avait  cinq  fils  et  trois  filles.  Napoleon  etait  le 
second  de  la  famille. 

A  dix  ans  il  entra  a  I'ecole  militaire  de  Brienne  comme 
boursier,  car  son  pere  n'etait  pas  assez  riche  pour  payer 
les  frais  de  son  education.  Le  jeune  ecolier  travaillait 
beaucoup,  et  a  quinze  ans  il  fut  envoys  k  I'^cole  militaire 
de  Paris.  A  seize  ans  il  etait  lieutenant  en  second  dans 
un  regiment  d'artillerie. 


NAPOLEON  165 

II  devint  rapidement  capitaine,  puis  commandant,  et  il 
avait  ce  grade  quand  il  fut  envoye  a  I'armee  qui  assiegeait 
Toulon,  dont  les  Anglais  s'etaient  empares  en  1793. 
Grace  a  lui,  Toulon  fut  pris  en  quelques  jours,  et  il  fut 
fait  general.    II  avait  vingt-quatre  ans. 

Quand  Bonaparte  pris  le  commanderaent  de  I'armee 
d'ltalie,  en  1796,  il  avait  \angt-six  ans. 

On  croit  lire  un  roman  en  lisant  cette  histoire  d'un 
homme,  qui  etait  en  1785,  a  seize  ans,  un  lieutenant  d'ar- 
tillerie  inconnu  de  tous;  quinze  ans  apres,  en  1799,  pre- 
mier consul  et  maitre  de  la  France;  cinq  ans  apres,  en  1804, 
empereur;  en  1811,  maitre  de  presque  toute  I'Europe. 

Mais  I'Angleterre  n'avait  pas  ei6  vaincue,  I'Espagne 
resistait  toujours,  et  bientot  la  guerre  eclata  avec  la 
Russie. 

Napoleon  envahit  la  Russie  au  mois  de  juin  1812.  II 
fut  vainqueur,  sur  le  chemin  de  Moscou,  a  la  bataille  de 
la  Moskova;  il  entra  dans  Moscou,  mais  les  Russes  bru- 
lerent  la  ville,  et  I'hiver  vint.  Napoleon  fut  oblige  de 
battre  en  retraite.  L'armee  souffrit  du  froid  et  de  la  faim 
dans  les  plaines  desolees  et  couvertes  de  neige.  La  cava- 
lerie  russe  harcelait  nos  soldats.  Trois  cent  mille  soldats 
de  Napoleon  perirent  dans  cette  guerre. 

Le  roi  de  Prusse  et  les  princes  allemands,  qui  trem- 
blaient  naguere  devant  Napoleon,  s'enhardirent  alors  et 
lui  declarerent  la  guerre.  L'empereur  d'Autriche,  bien 
qu'il  fut  le  beau-pere  de  Napoleon,  se  joignit  a  ses  enne- 
mis  pour  I'ecraser,  et  toute  I'Allemagne  se  souleva  contre 
nous,  comme  I'Espagne. 

A  Leipzig  (1813),  Napoleon,  avec  200,000  hommes, 
livra  pendant  trois  jours,  a  300,000  Russes  et  Allemands, 
une  bataille  qu'on  a  appelee  la  bataille  des  nations,  parce 
que  presque  toutes  les  nations  de  I'Europe  y  furent  repre- 


166  TEXTS   AND   EXERCISES 

sentees.  Napoleon  fut  vaincu.  II  abdiqua  en  faveur  de 
son  fils  que  les  souverains  allies  ne  voulurent  pas  laisser 
regner. 

Ce  fut  alors  que  le  comte  de  Provence,  frere  et  heritier 
de  Louis  XVI,  rentra  en  France.  II  devint  le  roi  Louis 
XVIII,  et  Napoleon  se  rendit  a  I'ile  d'Elbe  dont  on  lui 
avait  donne  la  souverainete. 

Au  mois  de  mars  1815,  il  quitta  Tile  d'Elbe;  il  debarqua 
sur  les  cotes  de  Provence  et  traversa  la  France  sans  que 
personne  put  I'arreter,  parce  que  les  soldats  envoyes 
contre  lui  par  Louis  XVIII  criaient,  ((Vive  I'empereur!)) 
Louis  XVIII  s'enfuit  de  Paris  et  I'empereur  y  rentra. 

Aussitot  les  souverains  declarerent  la  guerre  a  Napo- 
leon, qui  fut  battu  a  Waterloo  au  mois  de  juin  1815.  Le 
gouvernement  anglais  I'envoya  prisonnier  dans  une  ile 
d'Afrique,  a  Sainte-Helene,  et  Louis  XVIII  rentra  en 
France.  Napoleon  laissa  la  France  plus  petite  qu'elle 
n'etait  a  son  avenement,  plus  petite  meme  que  I'ancienne 
monarchie  ne  I'avait  faite. 

SUBJUNCTIVES  AND  INFINITIVES 

(See  §§  171-178,  197,  222;  §§  202-206,  211-218) 

However  young  Napoleon  is,  he  will  know  how  to  take  Tou- 
lon. Whoever  that  young  man  is,  he  works  hard.  Whatever 
his  family  is,  and  however  rich  his  father  is,  he  wiU  never  have 
command  of  the  army. 

Quite  unknown  as  he  is,  he  is  entering  the  miUtary  school. 
They  are  seeking  a  general  who  can  take  Toulon  in  a  few  days. 
Do  you  know  the  general  who  has  just  taken  Leipzig? 

I  do  not  want  a  friend  who  joins  my  enemies  in  (a)  the  day 
of  battle.  Let  us  choose  a  friend  who  tells  us  what  he  thinks. 
I  have  found  a  friend  who  always  says  what  he  thinks. 

I  do  not  believe  that  he  would  burn  the  city  if  he  should 
enter  it.    It  is  true  that  he  would  join  our  enemies  if  we  were 


SUBJUNCTIVES  AND   INFINITIVES  167 

beaten.  It  is  not  possible  that  he  would  join  our  enemies  if 
we  were  beaten. 

Join  us  that  we  may  crush  him!  We  shall  not  crush  him 
unless  you  join  us.  Before  you  join  us,  declare  war  against 
Napoleon!  Before  your  friends  join  us,  they  must  declare 
war  against  Napoleon. 

Although  you  tremble  in  Napoleon's  presence,  you  must  de- 
clare war  against  him.  Provided  that  they  do  not  die  on  the 
way,  they  wiU  prevent  the  French  from  entering  Waterloo. 

He  will  cross  France  without  anyone  being  able  to  stop  him. 
He  Avill  leave  his  island  without  either  Russians  or  Enghsh 
knowing  it.  Let  us  send  soldiers  against  him,  that  he  may  not 
land  on  the  coast  of  Provence! 

(Repeat  the  preceding  sentences,  changing  primary  to  the  cor- 
responding secondary  tenses  in  the  main  clauses.) 

We  are  not  rich  enough  to  go  to  France  this  sunamer.  Send 
him  to  take  Toulon.  He  has  much  to  do.  Do  you  think  you  are 
reading  novels? 

The  Russians  wiU  come  and  burn  the  city.  The  Russians  are 
going  to  burn  the  city.  The  Russians  have  just  burned  the  city. 
If  the  Russians  happen  to  burn  the  city,  we  shall  suffer  from 
cold  and  hunger. 

It  is  time  to  beat  a  retreat.  That  is  easy  to  say,  but  hard  to 
do.  Tell  them  to  join  us.  Let  us  rise  to  crush  our  enemies. 
The  government  is  ready  to  send  him  to  Saint  Helena. 

Shout  to  them  to  go  to  the  island  of  Elba.  That  will  teach 
him  to  invade  Russia.  In\-ite  him  to  leave  France.  Twice  has 
he  seen  France  invaded. 

Those  poor  soldiers  are  to  be  pitied.  They  like  better  to  die 
than  to  surrender. 

Let  him  study,  that  he  may  be  a  general  at  twenty-four! 

Let  Spain  resist  him,  let  Russia  burn  her  cities,  let  Prussia 
take  courage,  let  Austria  join  his  enemies! 

God  forbid  that  we  have  to  fight  such  battles!  Would  to  God 
that  he  had  not  come  back  to  France ! 


NOIRAUD 

LuDovic  Halevy 

—  N'ayez  pas  peur,  monsieur,  vous  ne  manquerez  pas 
le  train.  Voila  quinze  ans  que  je  mene  des  voyageurs  au 
chemin  de  fer,  et  jamais  je  ne  leur  ai  fait  manquer  le  train! 
Entendez-vous,  monsieur,  jamais! 

—  Cependant . .  . 

—  Oh!  ne  regardez  pas  votre  montre.  II  y  a  une  chose 
que  vous  ne  savez  pas  et  qu'il  faut  savoir  et  que  votre 
montre  ne  vous  dira  pas.  C'est  que  le  train  est  toujours 
en  retard  d'un  quart  d'heure.  II  n'y  a  pas  d'exemple  que 
le  train  n'ait  pas  ete  en  retard  d'un  quart  d'heure. 

II  y  en  eut  un  ce  jour-la.  Le  train  avait  ete  exact  et  je 
le  manquai.    Mon  cocher  etait  furieux. 

—  II  faut  prevenir,  disait-il  au  chef  de  gare,  il  faut  pre- 
venir  si  vos  trains,  tout  d'un  coup,  se  mettent  a  partir  a 
rheure.    Jamais  on  n'a  vu  ga! 

Et  prenant  a  temoin  tons  les  assistants: 

—  N'est-ce  pas  qu'on  n'a  jamais  vu  ga?  Je  ne  veux  pas 
paraitre  fautif  pres  de  monsieur.  Un  train  a  I'heure!  Un 
train  a  I'heure!  Dites-lui  bien  que  c'est  la  premiere  fois 
que  c'est  arrive. 

Ce  fut  un  cri  general.  «0h  oui!  oh  oui!  ordinairement 
il  y  a  du  retard.))  Je  n'en  avais  pas  moins  trois  grandes 
heures  a  passer  dans  un  tres  melancolique  village  du  can- 
ton de  Vaud,  au  pied  de  deux  melancoliques  montagnes 
qui  avaient  deux  petites  houppettes  de  neige  sur  la  tete. 

Comment  tuer  ces  trois  heures?     A  mon  tour,  j'invo- 
quai  1 'assistance.    Et  ce  fut  de  nouveau  un  cri  general: 
168 


NOIRAUD  169 

—  Allez  voir  le  Chaudron!  il  n'y  a  que  ga.  a  voir  dans 
le  pays. 

Et  ou  etait-il,  ce  Chaudron? 

Sur  la  montagne  de  droite,  a  mi-c6te;  mais  le  chemin 
etait  un  peu  complique;  on  me  conseillait  de  prendre  un 
guide,  et  la-bas,  dans  cette  petite  maison  blanche  avec  des 
volets  verts,  je  devais  trouver  le  meilleur  guide  du  pays, 
un  brave  homme,  le  pere  Simon. 

Je  m'en  allai  frapper  a  la  porte  de  la  petite  maison. 

Une  vieille  femme  vint  m'ouvrir. 

—  Le  pere  Simon? 

—  C'est  bien  ici.  Mais  voila!  si  c'est  pour  aller  au 
Chaudron? 

—  Oui,  c'est  pour  aller  au  Chaudron. 

—  Eh  bien !  II  ne  va  pas  bien  depuis  ce  matin,  le  pere 
Simon.  II  n'a  pas  de  jambes.  II  ne  pent  pas  sortir.  Seule- 
ment,  ne  vous  inquietez  pas,  il  y  a  quelqu'un  pour  le  rem- 
placer;  il  y  a  Noiraud. 

—  Va  pour  Noiraud. 

—  Seulement  il  faut  que  je  vous  previenne.  Ce  n'est 
pas  une  personne,  Noiraud. 

—  Pas  une  personne? 

—  Non,  c'est  notre  chien. 

—  Comment,  votre  chien? 

—  Oui,  Noiraud.  Et  il  vous  conduira  tres  bien,  aussi 
bien  que  mon  mari;  il  a  I'habitude. 

—  L'habitude? 

—  Certainement,  depuis  des  annees  et  des  annees,  le 
pere  Simon  I'emmene  avec  lui.  Alors  il  a  appris  a  con- 
naitre  les  endroits  et  maintenant  il  fait  tres  bien  sa  petite 
affaire  tout  seul.  II  a  souvent  conduit  des  voyageurs,  et 
nous  en  avons  toujours  eu  des  compliments.  Pour  ce  qui 
est  de  I'intelligence,  n'ayez  pas  peur,  il  en  a  autant  que 


170  NOIRAUD 

vous  et  moi.  II  ne  lui  manque  que  la  parole.  Mais  ga 
n'est  pas  necessaire,  la  parole.  Si  c'etait  pour  montrer  un 
monument,  oui,  parce  qu'alors  il  faut  savoir  faire  des  re- 
cits  et  dire  des  dates  historiques.  Mais  ici,  il  n'y  a  que 
des  beautes  de  la  nature.  Prenez  Noiraud.  Et  puis,  ga 
vous  coutera  moins  cher.  C'est  trois  francs,  mon  mari; 
Noiraud,  ga  n'est  que  trente  sous;  et  il  vous  en  fera  voir 
pour  trente  sous  autant  que  mon  mari  pour  trois  francs. 

—  Eh  bien,  ou  est-il,  Noiraud? 

—  II  se  repose  au  soleil,  dans  le  jardin.  II  a  deja  mene 
des  Anglais,  ce  matin,  au  Chaudron.  Je  I'appelle,  pas 
vrai? 

—  Oui,  appelez-le. 

—  Noiraud!  Noiraud! 

II  arriva  d'un  bond  par  la  fenetre.  C'etait  un  assez 
vilain  petit  chien  noir  a  longs  polls  f rises  et  ebouriffes; 
mais  il  avait  cependant,  dans  toute  sa  personne,  un  cer- 
tain air  de  gravite,  de  decision,  d'importance.  Son  pre- 
mier regard  fut  pour  moi;  un  regard  net,  precis,  assure, 
qui  m'enveloppa  rapidement  des  pieds  a  la  tete,  un  regard 
qui  disait  clairement:  «C'est  un  voyageur.  II  veut  voir  le 
Chaudron. » 

Un  train  manque  me  suffisait,  pour  ce  jour-la,  et  je 
tenais  a  ne  pas  m'exposer  une  seconde  fois  a  pareille 
mesaventure.  J'expliquai  a  cette  brave  femme  que  je 
n'avais  que  trois  heures  pour  ma  promenade  au  Chaudron. 

— ^Oh!  je  sais  bien,  me  dit-elle,  vous  voulez  prendre  le 
train  de  quatre  heures.  Ne  craignez  rien.  Noiraud  vous 
ramenera  a  temps.  AUons,  Noiraud,  en  route,  mon  gar- 
gon,  en  route. 

Mais  Noiraud  ne  paraissait  pas  du  tout  dispose  a  se 
mettre  en  route.  II  restait  la  immobile,  regardant  sa  mai- 
tresse  avec  une  certaine  agitation. 


NOIRAUD  171 

—  Ah!  je  suis  bete,  dit  la  vieille  femme.  J'oubliais, 
j'oubliais  le  sucre. 

EUe  alia  prendre  quatre  morceaux  de  sucre  dans  un 
tiroir  et,  me  les  remettant: 

— •  Voila  pourquoi  il  ne  voulait  pas  partir.  Vous  n'aviez 
pas  les  morceaux  de  sucre.  Tu  vols,  Noiraud,  le  monsieur 
a  le  sucre.  AUons,  en  route,  mon  gargon!  Au  Chaudron! 
au  Chaudron!  au  Chaudron! 

Elle  repeta  ces  mots  trois  fois  en  parlant  tres  lentement 
et  tres  distinctement,  et  pendant  ce  temps,  moi,  j'exami- 
nais  Noiraud  avec  attention.  II  repondait  aux  paroles  de 
sa  maitresse  par  de  petits  signes  de  tete  qui  allaient  en 
s'accentuant  et  ou  il  entrait  evidemment,  a  la  fin,  un  peu 
d'impatience  et  de  mauvaise  humeur.  On  pouvait  les 
traduire  ainsi:  ((Oui,  oui,  au  Chaudron;  j'ai  compris.  Le 
monsieur  a  les  morceaux  de  sucre,  et  nous  allons  au 
Chaudron.  C'est  entendu.  Me  prenez-vous  pour  une 
bete?)) 

Et  sans  laisser  finir  le  troisieme  ((au  Chaudron))  de 
madame  Simon,  Noiraud,  evidemment  blesse,  tourna  les 
talons,  vint  se  planter  en  face  de  moi  et,  du  regard,  me 
montrant  la  porte,  me  dit  aussi  nettement  qu'il  etait  per- 
mis  a  un  chien  de  le  dire: 

—  Allons,  venez,  vous! 

Je  le  suivis  docilement.  Nous  partimes  tous  les  deux, 
lui  devant,  moi  derriere.  Nous  traversames  ainsi  tout  le 
village.  Des  gamins  qui  jouaient  dans  la  rue  reconnurent 
mon  guide. 

—  Eh,  Noiraud!    Bonjour,  Noiraud! 

lis  voulaient  jouer  avec  le  chien;  mais  il  tourna  la  tete 
d'un  air  dedaigneux,  de  I'air  d'un  chien  qui  n'a  pas  le 
temps  de  s'amuser,  d'un  chien  qui  est  en  train  de  faire  son 
devoir  et  de  gagner  trente  sous.    Un  des  enfants  s'ecria: 


172  NOIRAUD 

—  Laissez-le  done.  II  conduit  le  m'sieu  au  Chaudron. 
Bonjour,  m'sieu! 

Et  tous  eclaterent  de  rire,  en  repetant: 

—  Bonjour,  m'sieu! 

Je  souriais,  mais  gauchement,  j'en  suis  sur.  Je  me  sen- 
tais  embarrasse,  un  pen  humilie  meme.  J'etais,  en  somme, 
domine  par  cet  animal.  II  etait,  pour  le  moment,  mon 
maitre.  II  savait  ou  il  allait,  et  moi  je  ne  le  savais  pas. 
J'avais  hate  de  sortir  du  village  et  de  me  trouver  seul  avec 
Noiraud,  en  face  de  ces  beautes  de  la  nature  qu'il  avait 
pour  mission  de  me  faire  admirer. 

Ces  beautes  de  la  nature  furent,  pour  commencer,  une 
affreuse  route  poudreuse,  sous  un  soleil  brulant.  Le  chien 
marchait  d'un  pas  alerte  et  je  me  fatiguais  a  le  suivre. 
J' essay ai  de  moderer  son  allure: 

—  Noiraud,  allons;  Noiraud,  mon  gargon,  pas  si  vite. 
Noiraud  faisait  la  sourde  oreille  et  fut  pris  brusquement 

d'un  veritable  acces  de  colere,  quand  je  voulus  m'asseoir, 
au  coin  d'un  champ,  sous  un  arbre  qui  donnait  une  ombre 
grele.  II  aboyait  d'une  petite  voix  furieuse,  me  jetait  des 
regards  irrites.  fividemment,  ce  que  je  faisais  etait  con- 
traire  a  la  regie.  On  n'avait  pas  la  coutume  de  s'arreter 
la.  Et  les  jappements  etaient  si  aigus  que  je  me  levai 
pour  reprendre  ma  route.  Noiraud  se  calma  aussitot  et 
se  remit  a  trottiner  gaiement  devant  moi.  Je  I'avais  com- 
pris.    II  6ta\t  content. 

Quelques  minutes  apres,  nous  entrions  dans  un  deli- 
cieux  chemin,  tout  fleuri,  tout  ombreux,  tout  parfume, 
tout  plein  de  la  fraicheur  et  du  murmure  des  sources. 
Noiraud  se  glissa  aussitot  sous  bois,  prit  le  galop  et  dis- 
parut  dans  le  petit  sentier.  Je  le  suivais,  un  pen  haletant. 
Je  n'avais  pas  fait  une  centaine  de  pas,  que  je  trouvai  mon 
Noiraud  qui  m'attendait,  la  tete  haute  et  I'oeil  brillant. 


NOIRAUD  173 

dans  une  sorte  de  salle  de  verdure  egayee  par  la  chanson 
d'une  mignonne  cascade.  II  y  avait  la  un  vieux  banc 
rustique,  et  le  regard  de  Noiraud  allait  avec  impatience 
de  mes  yeux  a  ce  banc  et  de  ce  banc  a  mes  yeux.  Je  com- 
mengais  a  comprendre  le  langage  de  Noiraud. 

—  A  la  bonne  heure,  me  disait-il,  voila  une  place  pour 
se  reposer.  II  fait  bon,  ici;  il  fait  frais.  Tu  etais  bete; 
tu  voulais  t'arreter  en  plein  soleil.  AUons,  assieds-toi; 
tu  peux  t'asseoir,  je  te  le  permets. 

Et  je  m'arretai,  je  m'assis  et  j'allumai  un  cigare.  Je  fis 
presque  le  mouvement  d'en  offrir  un  a  Noiraud.  II  fu- 
mait  peut-etre.  Mais  je  pensai  qu'il  prefererait  un  mor- 
ceau  de  sucre.  II  I'attrapa  au  vol  fort  adroitement,  le 
croqua  a  belles  dents,  se  coucha  et  s'assoupit  a  mes  pieds. 
II  etait  evidemment  habitue  a  faire  a  cette  place  une 
petite  halte  et  une  petite  sieste. 

II  ne  dormit  guere  qu'une  dizaine  de  minutes.  J'etais, 
d'ailleurs,  parfaitement  tranquille;  Noiraud  commengait  a 
m'inspirer  une  confiance  absolue.  J'etais  resolu  a  lui  obeir 
aveuglement.  II  se  leva,  s'etira,  me  jeta  ce  petit  regard 
de  cote  qui  signifiait:  ((En  route,  mon  ami,  en  route.))  Et 
nous  voila,  comme  deux  vieux  amis,  cheminant  sous  bois, 
d'une  allure  plus  lente;  Noiraud  goutait  le  charme,  le 
silence  et  la  douceur  du  Ueu.  Sur  la  route,  tout  a  I'heure, 
ayant  hate  d'echapper  a  cette  chaleur,  a  cette  poussiere, 
il  s'avangait  d'un  petit  pas,  serre,  presse.  II  marchait 
pour  arriver.  Et  maintenant,  rafraichi,  detendu,  Noiraud 
marchait  pour  le  plaisir  de  se  promener  dans  un  des  plus 
jolis  petits  sentiers  du  canton  de  Vaud. 

Un  chemin  se  presente  a  gauche.  Courte  hesitation  de 
Noiraud.  II  reflechit.  Puis  il  passe  et  continue  sa  route, 
droit  devant  lui,  mais  non  sans  quelque  trouble  et  sans 
quelque  incertitude  dans  sa  demarche.    Et  voici  qu'il  s'ar- 


174  NOIRAUD 

rete.  II  a  du  se  tromper.  Oui,  car  il  revient  sur  ses  pas  et 
nous  prenons  ce  chemin  a  gauche  qui,  tout  d'un  coup,  au 
bout  d'une  centaine  de  pas,  nous  conduit  a  une  sorte  de 
cirque;  et  Noiraud,  le  nez  en  I'air,  m'invite  a  contempler 
la  tres  respectable  hauteur  de  I'infranchissable  muraille  de 
rochers  qui  forme  ce  cirque.  Lorsque  Noiraud  pense  que 
j'ai  suffisamment  contemple,  il  fait  volte-face,  et  nous 
reprenons  notre  petit  sentier  sous  bois.  Noiraud  avait 
oublie  de  me  montrer  le  cirque  de  rochers,  une  legere  faute 
qui  avait  ete  bien  vite  reparee. 

La  route  bientot  devient  tres  montueuse,  tres  acciden- 
tee,  tres  dure.  Je  n'avance  plus  que  lentement,  avec  des 
precautions  infinies.  Noiraud,  lui,  saute  lestement  de 
roche  en  roche,  mais  il  ne  m'abandonne  pas.  II  m'attend, 
en  attachant  sur  moi  des  regards  charges  de  la  plus  tou- 
chante  sollicitude.  Enfin,  je  commence  a  entendre  comme 
un  bouillonnement;  Noiraud  se  met  a  japper  joyeusement. 

—  Courage,  me  dit-il,  courage.  Nous  arrivons,  tu  vas 
voir  le  Chaudron. 

C'est,  en  effet,  le  Chaudron.  Une  source  assez  modeste, 
d'une  hauteur  egalement  modeste,  tombe  avec  des  rejail- 
lissements  et  des  rebondissements  dans  une  grande  roche 
legerement  creusee.  Je  ne  me  consolerais  pas  d'avoir  fait 
cette  laborieuse  ascension  pour  voir  cette  mediocre  mer- 
veille  si  je  n'avais  eu  pour  compagnon  de  route  ce  brave 
Noiraud  qui  est,  lui,  bien  plus  interessant  et  bien  plus 
remarquable  que  le  Chaudron. 

De  chaque  cote  de  la  source,  dans  des  petits  chalets 
suisses,  sont  installees  deux  laiteries  tenues  par  deux 
petites  Suissesses,  Tune  blonde,  I'autre  brune;  toutes  deux 
en  costume  national,  guettant  avidement  mon  arrivee, 
sur  le  seuil  de  leurs  maisonnettes. 

II  me  semble  que  la  petite  blonde  a  de  tres  jolis  yeux  et 


NOIRAUD  175 

j 'avals  deja  fait  trois  ou  quatre  pas  de  son  cote,  lorsque 
Noiraud,  eclatant  en  aboiements  furieux,  me  barre  resolu- 
ment  le  passage.  Aurait-il  une  preference  pour  la  petite 
brune?  Je  change  de  direction.  C'etait  bien  cela.  Noi- 
raud s'apaise  comme  par  enchantement  quand  il  me  voit 
assis  a  une  table  devant  la  maison  de  sa  jeune  protegee. 
Je  demande  une  tasse  de  lait.  L'amie  de  Noiraud  rentre 
dans  son  petit  chalet  et  Noiraud  se  faufile  a  sa  suite  dans 
la  maison.  Par  une  petite  fenetre  entr'ouverte,  je  suis 
des  yeux  mon  Noiraud.  Le  miserable!  On  le  sert  avant 
moi.  C'est  lui  qui,  le  premier!  a  sa  grande  jatte  de  lait 
frais.    II  est  vendu! 

Apres  quoi,  avec  des  gouttes  blanches  suspendues  a  ses 
moustaches,  Noiraud  vient  me  tenir  compagnie  et  me  re- 
garder  boire  mon  lait.  Je  lui  donne  un  morceau  de  sucre, 
et,  tous  deux,  absolument  satisfaits  I'un  de  I'autre,  respi- 
rant  a  pleins  poumons  I'air  vif  et  leger  de  la  montagne, 
nous  passons,  a  trois  ou  quatre  cents  metres  d'altitude, 
une  demi-heure  delicieuse. 

Noiraud  commence  a  donner  quelques  signes  d'impa- 
tience  et  d'agitation.  Je  lis  maintenant  dans  ses  yeux  a 
Uvre  ouvert.  II  faut  partir,  Je  paie,  je  me  leve,  et,  pen- 
dant que  je  m'en  vais  a  droite  vers  le  chemin  qui  nous  a 
amenes  sur  la  montagne,  je  vols  mon  Noiraud  qui  va  se 
planter  a  gauche  a  I'entree  d'un  autre  chemin.  II  attache 
sur  moi  un  regard  serieux,  severe.  Que  de  progres  j'ai 
faits  depuis  deux  heures  et  comme  la  silencieuse  eloquence 
de  Noiraud  m'est  devenue  famihere! 

—  Quelle  opinion  as-tu  de  moi?  me  dit  Noiraud.  Crois- 
tu  que  je.vais  te  faire  passer  deux  fois  par  la  meme  route? 
Non  pas,  vraiment.  Je  suis  un  bon  guide.  Je  sais  mon 
metier.  Nous  allons  redescendre  au  village  par  un  autre 
chemin. 


176  NOIRAUD 

Nous  redescendons  par  cet  autre  chemin  qui  est  beau- 
coup  plus  joli  que  le  premier.  Noiraud  se  retourne  sou- 
vent  vers  moi  avec  un  petit  air  de  triomphe  et  de  joie. 
Nous  traversons  le  village  et,  sur  la  place  de  la  gare,  Noi- 
raud est  assailli  par  trois  ou  quatre  chiens  de  ses  amis  qui 
paraissent  fort  en  humeur  de  bavarder  et  de  jouer  un  peu 
avec  leur  camarade.  lis  veulent  I'arreter  au  passage,  mais 
le  brave  Noiraud,  grognant,  grondant,  repousse  vivement 
toutes  leurs  avances. 

—  Vous  voyez  bien  que  j'ai  a  faire.  Je  conduis  ce  mon- 
sieur a  la  gare. 

Ce  n'est  que  dans  la  salle  d'attente  qu'il  consent  a  se 
separer  de  moi,  apres  avoir  croque  gaiement  les  deux  der- 
niers  morceaux  de  sucre,  et  voici  comment  je  traduis  le 
regard  d'adieu  que  mon  guide  me  jette  en  partant  pour  la 
maison  de  sa  maitresse: 

—  Nous  sommes  en  avance  de  vingt  minutes.  Ce  n'est 
pas  moi  qui  t'aurais  fait  manquer  le  train!  Allons!  bon 
voyage!  bon  voyage! 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON   «NOIRAUD» 

(Brackets  [  ]  indicate  that  the  words  enclosed  are  to  be  omitted  in  translation; 
references  are  to  sections.) 

I.    BEGINNING  TO   «ET  Ot  ETAIT-IL)) 

Val  Perdu,  Canton  of  Vaud,  Switzerland, 

(144),  19 

Dear  Cousin: 

Do  you  know  where  (152,  2)  Val  Perdu  is?  It  (147)  is  the  most 
melancholy  (138)  little  village  in  (135)  Switzerland  (137,  2c/), 
asleep  at  the  foot  of  its  two  lofty  mountains,  each  of  which  (75) 
wears  a  pretty  little  snow-cap  on  its  (137,  2e)  head.  And  how 
does  it  happen  that  I  am  (119,  5)  at  Val  Perdu?  That  is  what  I 
am  going  to  teU  you  during  the  half -hour  (130)  that  I  must 


NOIRAUD  177 

(186)  wait  here  for  my  train,  if  it  is  not  late  as  [it  is]  always  — 
or  almost  always. 

I  say  "almost  always"  for  (227)  to-day,  for  (218)  the  first 
time  in  (depuis)  fifteen  years,  a  train  was  seen  (85)  here  on 
time!  That  is  why  I  missed  it.  My  driver,  who  reckoned  on  a 
quarter  of  an  (136)  hour's  delay,  was  furious.  All  those  present 
looked  at  the  station-master,  who  seemed  to  them  to  blame  for 
(216)  not  having  warned  the  driver  that  [on]  that  day  the  train 
was  going  to  be  prompt. 

The  poor  station-master  did  not  know  (196a)  what  to  say;  in 
turn  (187)  he  looked  at  the  driver,  the  traveler,  and  the  train 
which  had  just  (219)  left.  All  at  once  he  began  to  laugh:  "Don't 
be  afraid,  sir;  by  taking  (110)  the  four  o'clock  (143)  express  you 
will  still  get  to  Lausanne  in  (219)  time  for  dinner  (136).  Mean- 
while, Noiraud  will  take  you  to  the  Caldron.  You  must  (186) 
see  that." 

And  appeaUng  to  the  driver,  "Isn't  it  [true],  John,  that  he 
must  (186)  see  the  Caldron?" 

There  was  a  general  cry,  "Oh  yes,  oh  yes!  That  is  the  only 
thing  to  (205)  see  in  the  place!" 

That,  then,  is  why  I  am  at  Val  Perdu.  I  came  in  (210)  a 
carriage  to  (218)  take  the  quarter  past  one  (143)  train,  my 
driver  made  (158)  me  lose  it;  I  have  remained  here  until  four 
o'clock,  and  I  have  had  time  to  (213)  go  (218)  and  see  the  Cal- 
dron. I  will  teU  you  about  that  to-morrow.  Meanwhile,  be- 
lieve me  always  (crois  toujours  aux  meilleures  amities  de) 
your  affectionate  cousin. 


II.     «ET  OtJ  fiTAIT-IL))  TO   ((UN  TRAIN   MANQUfi» 

Lausanne,  Canton  de  Vaud,  Switzerland, 

,  19 

Dear  Cousin: 

This  morning  I  am  going  to  tell  you  how  I  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Noiraud.  I  was  advised  (85)  to  (216)  take  a  guide  to 
(218)  go  to  the  Caldron,  and  I  was  told  (85)  that  father  (137,  2c) 


178  NOIRAUD 

Simon  was  (115)  the  best  guide  in  (135)  the  place.  I  went  (92,  2) 
and  knocked  (218)  at  the  door  of  a  pretty  little  white  house;  an 
old  woman  came  and  opened  [the  door]  for  me  (56),  and  I  asked 
for  father  Simon. 

"It  is  here,  su',  but  he  has  not  been  (103)  feeUng  well  since 
this  morning.  If  it  is  to  (218)  go  to  the  Caldron,  you  should 
(167)  take  Noiraud,  who  often  takes  his  place  and  who  will  guide 
you  as  well  as  my  husband." 

"Noiraud  wiU  do." 

She  called,  "Noiraud!  Noiraud!"  and  a  httle  black  (138)  dog 
came  in  through  (219)  the  window  at  (211)  a  single  leap.  He 
was  not  handsome,  with  his  long,  curly,  shaggy  hair;  but  his 
confident  eye  and  his  look  of  decision  and  importance  said 
plainly,  "I  don't  lack  intelligence  (138),  and  to  (218)  show  you 
the  beauties  of  nature,  speech  (136)  isn't  necessary." 

It  seems  that  for  a  long  time  father  Simon  has  taken  (103) 
Noiraud  with  him,  and  now  the  honest  dog  knows  the  places, 
and  guides  travelers  (136)  wdth  as  much  (199)  intelligence  as 
a  person. 

This  evening  I  will  tell  you  how  he  managed  his  httle  task. 
In  (210)  half  an  hour  (130)  we  start  for  Lucerne,  where  we  ex- 
pect to  spend  a  few  days.  Write  often  to  your  httle  cousin  who 
thinks  of  (56)  you  every  day  and  who  sends  you  his  best 
love. 


III.     ((UN  TRAIN  MANQUfi))  TO   ((JE   LE  SUIVIS)) 

Lucerne,  Switzerland, 

Seven  o'clock  in  the  evening, day 

,  19 

[My]  Dear  Cousin: 

Here  we  are  in  (202)  Lucerne.  The  train  was  an  hour  and  a 
half  (130)  late,  and  we  were  aU  very  tired  on  reaching  the  hotel. 
IMama  has  gone  (92,  2)  to  rest  in  her  room.  When  she  is  (100) 
a  little  recovered  from  her  weariness,  we  shall  take  a  little  walk 
in  the  town.     Meanwhile,  I  am  going  to  tell  you  an  incident 


NOIRAUD  179 

which  will  show  you  the  great  intelligence  of  my  Uttle  friend 
Noiraud. 

Before  (227)  setting  (108)  out  for  the  Caldron,  he  went  and 
planted  himself  before  (207)  his  mistress  whom  (73)  he  looked 
at  (91)  with  a  certain  excitement  into  which  (73)  there  evidently 
(190)  entered  a  little  impatience  and  (220)  ill  humor. 

"Oh,"  said  the  old  woman,  "How  stupid  I  am  (229)!  He 
is  bound  to  (219)  see  his  sugar  before  starting.  We  (85)  give 
him  some  sugar  each  time  (228)  he  guides  a  traveler,  and  there 
I  was  forgetting  (112)  it." 

She  went  to  a  drawer  and  took  (218)  four  pieces  of  sugar, 
which  she  handed  me,  saying  slowly  (190): 

"Come,  my  boy,  to  the  Caldron!" 

This  time  Noiraud  gave  a  little  nod,  faced  about,  and  swiftly 
taking  me  in  from  head  to  foot  with  his  clear,  calm  eye,  said  to 
me  as  plainly  as  it  was  possible  for  (202)  a  dog  to  say  it  (62), 

"All  right!    Come  on,  you!" 

I  will  write  you  again  before  leaving  Lucerne.  For  to-day,  I 
clasp  your  hand,  begging  you  to  accept  a  thousand  affectionate 
wishes  (choses)  from  your  cousin, 


IV.     «JE  LE  SUIVIS))   TO   «IL  NE  DORMIT  GUERE)) 

Lucerne, ,  19 

[My]  Dear  Cousin: 

You  ask  me  how  a  dog  can  make  (158)  himself  understood 
(178).  If  you  had  gone  with  me  to  the  Caldron,  you  would 
(116)  know  (62).  As  we  passed  (111)  through  the  village,  we 
met  some  urchins  who  knew  Noiraud  and  wished  to  play  with 
him,  but  his  scornful  air  and  the  way  in  which  (75)  he  turned 
aside  his  (137,  2e)  head  replied  to  them  plainly: 

"Let  me  [alone],  pray!  I  have  not  time  to  play.  I  am  busy 
(en  train  de)  doing  my  duty  and  earning  money.  I  am  guiding 
a  gentleman  to  the  Caldron." 

Do  you  understand  that  I  felt  myself  a  little  humiliated?  For 
the  moment,  I  was  dominated  by  that  animal,  whom  I  followed 


180  NOIRAUD 

obediently,  smiling  at  the  children  who  all  burst  out  laughing 
as  they  shouted  to  me,  "Good  morning,  sir!" 

A  little  further,  as  Noiraud  was  trotting  gaily  along  in  the 
burning  sun,  I  tried  to  make  him  go  more  slowly  (190),  but  he 
turned  a  deaf  ear,  and  when  I  sat  down  a  moment  in  (202)  the 
shade  of  a  little  tree,  the  angry  little  voice  with  which  he  barked, 
the  vexed  glances  that  he  gave  me,  and  his  sharp  yelps  made 
me  understand  at  once  that  what  (67)  I  was  doing  was  against 
the  rule,  that  I  must  not  stop  on  the  horrible,  dusty  road. 

In  order  to  calm  him,  I  rose,  and  he  at  once  went  on  again 
with  (208)  a  look  which  said,  "Well!  (230)  I  am  pleased  with 
(212)  you!" 

A  few  minutes  after,  I  found  liim  waiting  (113)  for  me  before 
(207)  an  old  rustic  bench,  in  a  delightful  bower  full  of  the  cool- 
ness of  a  darling  little  cascade;  and  his  shining  eyes  spoke  a 
language  that  I  was  beginning  to  understand. 

"Rest,"  they  said  (152,  1)  to  me.  "It  is  cool  here:  it  is  not 
well  (183)  to  stop  in  the  hot  sun.  Let  us  sit  down;  give  me  a 
piece  of  sugar;  and  I  will  take  a  Uttle  nap  at  your  feet." 

Good  night,  dear;  it  is  growing  (183)  late,  and  I  must  go  to 
bed;  but  to-morrow  you  shall  have  another  (89)  letter  from  your 
affectionate  cousin, 


V.     «IL  NE  DORMIT  GUERE))   TO   kAPRES  QU0I)> 

Lucerne, ,  19 ^. 

[My]  Dear  Cousin: 

You  think,  perhaps,  that  Noiraud  has  all  the  [good]  qualities 
without  having  the  failings  of  men  (136).  Why,  no!  He  (57) 
too,  has  his  little  weaknesses,  as  you  shall  (101)  see  (62).  Only 
once  did  he  miss  his  way  (219).  He  forgot  to  (216)  show  me  an 
amphitheater  of  impassable  rocks,  and  he  had  to  retrace  his 
steps  [and]  take  a  road  that  appeared  at  [the]  left;  but  he  very 
quickly  made  up  for  this  slight  error  and  when  the  road  grew 
steeper  (133)  and  harder,  the  anxiety  of  his  looks  inspired  in  me 
absolute  (137,  1)  confidence. 


NOIRAUD  181 

He  knew  very  well,  too,  which  of  the  two  little  Swiss  [girls] 
who  were  selling  milk,  each  at  the  door  of  her  little  cottage,  on 
either  side  of  the  Caldron,  was  the  more  (135)  disposed  to  give 
him  a  great  bowl  of  fresh  milk.  I  had  turned  (92,  1)  to  the  right, 
toward  (217)  a  httle  blonde  who  was  eagerly  (188)  watching  for 
my  coming,  when  Noiraud  barred  my  (137,  2e)  passage,  and  by 
his  angry  barks  make  me  take  the  path  to  [the]  left  and  sit  down 
at  the  table  of  a  little  brunette  who  rewarded  him  by  (HI) 
serving  him  before  (207)  me.    The  wretch!    He  was  bribed! 

That  is  why  he  had  cahned  down  so  quickly  (187)  on  seeing 
me  change  direction  (219).  He  preferred  his  bowl  of  fresh  milk 
to  the  pretty  eyes  of  the  httle  brunette.  Shall  we  (186)  praise 
his  wisdom  or  blame  his  greediness?  Tell  me  what  you  think 
of  it  (202) ;  and  wTite  frequently  and  at  length  to  (the)  one  (68) 
who  thinks  every  day  of  (56)  you. 

Your  devoted  cousin, 


VI.     ((APRES  QUOI))   TO  END 

Lucerne, ,  19 

Dear  Cousin: 

This  evening  we  are  (186)  to  leave  Lucerne  to  go  to  Paris. 
We  leave  with  regret  this  dehghtful  (138)  city,  which  has  be- 
come (92,  2)  familiar  to  us,  and  with  (212)  which  we  are  per- 
fectly satisfied.  For  three  days  we  have  been  (103)  fiUing  our 
lungs  with  the  sharp,  clear,  mountain-air,  at  an  altitude  of  more 
than  (191)  four  hundred  meters.  We  shall  return  here  next  sum- 
mer (19),  and  I  hope  (228)  you  will  come  then  and  (218)  keep  us 
company.  For  a  fortnight  ("fifteen  days")  mamma  has  shown 
(103)  signs  of  impatience  to  go  and  meet  papa  who  will  be  de- 
tained (106)  in  Paris  by  his  business  a  long  time  yet. 

So  we  must  go.  To-morrow  we  shall  rise  early,  and  the  ten 
o'clock  train  that  brought  us  from  Val  Perdu  will  carry  us  off 
toward  (217)  Paris. 

Yesterday  we  made  the  ascent  of  Pilatus  (19).  We  had  a  good 
guide  who  knew  his  business  well.     We  went  up  on  (de)  the 


182  NOIRAUD 

northern  side.  Passing  (110)  through  Hergiswyl  the  guide 
wished  to  stop  a  moment  on  the  way.  In  the  depot  square,  he 
entered  a  httle  inn  where  he  stayed  five  minutes.  Through  a 
half-open  window  we  saw  him  sitting  (111)  very  close  to  a  pretty 
blonde  Swiss  girl  in  national  costume.  They  looked  perfectly 
satisfied  with  each  other;  and  the  guide,  when  he  came  out  (110), 
with  a  httle  look  of  triumph  and  joy  (220)  was  wiping  [off]  a 
few  drops  still  hanging  (111)  from  his  mustache. 

At  first  he  had  seemed  to  us  silent,  serious,  a  little  stern  even, 
but  now  he  was  much  inclined  to  gossip.  It  seems  that  the 
little  Swiss  girl's  father  had  just  died  (219),  leaving  her  the  inn 
and  some  thousands  (141)  of  francs;  and  the  guide  was  to  marry 
her  in  (202)  the  spring. 

From  the  top  of  Pilatus  (19)  we  saw  a  wonderful  panorama. 
The  weather  was  magnificent,  a  (136)  rare  thing,  for  (227)  too 
often  Pilatus  wears  (se  coififer  de)  a  cap  of  fog. 

We  went  down  (92,  2)  ]:)y  another  road  to  Alpnach-Stad  where 
we  wished  to  take  the  boat  for  Lucerne.  On  leaving  the  guide, 
mamma  slipped  into  his  (137,  2e)  hand  a  piece  of  silver  ("a  white 
piece")  and  I  [can]  still  hear  the  "Pleasant  journey!"  that  he 
sent  back  to  us  as  he  departed  (110).  Write  soon,  and  think 
often  of 

Your  devoted  cousin, 


LA    DERNIERE    CLASSE 

Alphonse  Daudet 

Ce  matin-la  j'etais  tres  en  retard  pour  aller  a  I'ecole, 
et  j 'avals  grand'peur  d'etre  gronde,  d'autant  plus  que 
yi.  Hamel  nous  avait  dit  qu'il  nous  interrogerait  sur  les 
participes,  et  je  n'en  savais  pas  le  premier  mot.  Un  mo- 
ment I'idee  me  vint  de  manquer  la  classe  et  de  prendre 
ma  course  a  travers  champs. 

Le  temps  etait  si  chaud,  si  clair! 

On  entendait  les  merles  siffler  a  la  lisiere  du  bois,  et 
dans  le  pre  Rippert,  derriere  la  scierie,  les  Prussiens  qui 
faisaient  I'exercice.  Tout  cela  me  tentait  bien  plus  que  la 
regie  des  participes;  mais  j'eus  la  force  de  resister,  et  je 
courus  bien  vite  vers  I'ecole. 

En  passant  devant  la  mairie,  je  vis  qu'il  y  avait  du 
monde  arrete  pres  du  petit  grillage  aux  afRches.  Depuis 
deux  ans,  c'est  de  la  que  nous  sont  venues  toutes  les  mau- 
vaises  nouvelles,  les  batailles  perdues,  les  requisitions,  les 
ordres  de  la  commandature;  et  je  pensai  sans  m'arreter: 

((Qu'est-ce  qu'il  y  a  encore?)) 

Alors,  comme  je  traversais  la  place  en  courant,  le  forge- 
ron  Wachter,  qui  etait  la  avec  son  apprenti  en  train  de  lire 
I'affiche,  me  cria: 

((Ne  te  depeche  pas  tant,  petit;  tu  y  arriveras  toujours 
assez  tot,  a  ton  ecole!)) 

Je  crus  qu'il  se  moquait  de  moi,  et  j'entrai  tout  essouffle 
dans  la  petite  cour  de  M.  Hamel. 

D'ordinaire,  au  commencement  de  la  classe,  il  se  faisait 
un  grand  tapage  qu'on  entendait  j  usque  dans  la  rue,  les 
183 


184  LA  DERNIERE  CLASSE 

pupitres  ouverts,  fermes,  les  legons  qu'on  repetait  tres 
haut  tous  ensemble,  en  se  bouchant  les  oreilles  pour  mieux 
apprendre,  et  la  grosse  regie  du  maitre  qui  tapait  sur  les 
tables  : 

((Un  peu  de  silence!)) 

Je  comptais  sur  tout  ce  train  pour  gagner  mon  banc 
sans  etre  vu;  mais  justement  ce  jour-la  tout  etait  tran- 
quille,  comme  un  matin  de  dimanche.  Par  la  fenetre 
ouverte  je  voyais  mes  camarades  deja  ranges  a  leur  place, 
ct  M.  Hamel,  qui  passait  et  repassait  avec  la  terrible  regie 
en  fer  sous  le  bras.  II  fallut  ouvrir  la  porte  et  entrer  au 
milieu  de  ce  grand  calme.  Vous  pensez  si  j'etais  rouge,  et 
si  j 'avals  peur! 

Eh  bien,  non.  M.  Hamel  me  regarda  sans  colere  et  me 
dit  tres  doucement : 

«Va  vite  a  ta  place,  mon  petit  Frantz;  nous  allions  com- 
mencer  sans  toi.)) 

J'enjambai  le  banc  et  je  m'assis  tout  de  suite  a  mon 
pupitre.  Alors  seulement,  un  peu  remis  de  ma  frayeur,  je 
remarquai  que  notre  maitre  avait  sa  belle  redingote  verte, 
son  jabot  plisse  fin  et  la  calotte  de  sole  noire  brodee  qu'il 
ne  mettait  que  les  jours  d 'inspection  ou  de  distribution  de 
prix.  Du  reste,  toute  la  classe  avait  quelque  chose  d'ex- 
traordinaire  et  de  solennel.  Mais  ce  qui  me  surprit  le 
plus,  ce  fut  de  voir  au  fond  de  la  salle,  sur  les  bancs  qui 
restaient  vides  d'habitude,  les  gens  du  village  assis  et  si- 
lencieux  comme  nous,  le  vieux  Hauser  avec  son  tricorne, 
I'ancien  maire,  I'ancien  facteur,  et  puis  d'autres  personnes 
encore.  Tout  ce  monde-la  paraissait  triste;  et  Hauser 
avait  apporte  un  vieil  abecedaire  mange  aux  bords  qu'il 
tenait  grand  ouvert  sur  ses  genoux,  avec  ses  grosses  lu- 
nettes posees  en  travers  des  pages. 

Pendant  que  je  m'etonnais  de  tout  cela,  M.   Hamel 


LA   DERNIERE   CLASSE  185 

etait  monte  dans  sa  chaire,  et,  de  la  meme  voix  douce  et 
grave  dont  il  m'avait  regu,  il  nous  dit: 

((Mes  enfants,  c'est  la  derniere  fois  que  je  vous  fais  la 
classe.  L'ordre  est  venu  de  Berlin  de  ne  plus  enseigner 
que  Tallemand  dans  les  ecoles  de  1' Alsace  et  de  la  Lor- 
raine .  .  .  Le  nouveau  maitre  arrive  demain.  Aujour- 
d'hui  c'est  votre  derniere  legon  de  frangais.  Je  vous  prie 
d'etre  bien  attentifs.)) 

Ces  quelques  paroles  me  bouleverserent.  Ah!  les  mise- 
rables,  voila  ce  qu'ils  avaient  afficlie  a  la  mairie: 

Ma  derniere  legon  de  frangais! 

Et  moi  qui  savais  a  peine  ecrire!  Je  n'apprendrais  done 
jamais!  II  faudrait  done  en  rester  la!  Comme  je  m'en 
voulais  maintenant  du  temps  perdu,  des  classes  man- 
quees  a  courir  les  nids  ou  a  faire  des  glissades  sur  la  Saar! 
Mes  livres  que  tout  a  I'heure  encore  je  trouvais  si  en- 
nuyeux,  si  lourds  a  porter,  ma  grammaire,  mon  histoire 
sainte,  me  semblaient  de  vieux  amis  qui  me  feraient  beau- 
coup  de  peine  a  quitter.  C'est  comme  M.  Hamel.  L'idee 
qu'il  allait  partir,.  que  je  ne  le  verrais  plus,  me  faisait 
oublier  les  punitions,  les  coups  de  regie. 

Pauvre  homme! 

C'est  en  I'honneur  de  eette  derniere  classe  qu'il  avait 
mis  ses  beaux  habits  du  dimanche,  et  maintenant  je  com- 
prenais  pourquoi  ces  vieux  du  village  etaient  venus 
s'asseoir  au  bout  de  la  salle.  Cela  semblait  dire  qu'ils 
regrettaient  de  ne  pas  y  etre  venus  plus  souvent,  a  eette 
eeole.  C'etait  aussi  comme  une  fagon  de  remercier  notre 
maitre  de  ses  quarante  ans  de  bons  services,  et  de  rendre 
leurs  devoirs  a  la  patrie  qui  s'en  allait. 

J'en  etais  la  de  mes  reflexions,  quand  j'entendis  appeler 
mon  nom.  C'etait  mon  tour  de  reciter.  Que  n'aurais-je 
pas  donne  pour  pouvoir  dire  tout  au  long  eette  fameuse 


186  LA  DERNIERE  CLASSE 

regie  des  participes,  bien  haut,  bien  clair,  sans  une  faute; 
mais  je  m'embrouillai  aux  premiers  mots,  et  je  restai  de- 
bout  a  me  balancer  dans  mon  banc,  le  coeur  gros,  sans 
oser  lever  la  tete.    J'entendais  M.  Hamel  qui  me  parlait: 

«Je  ne  te  gronderai  pas  mon  petit  Frantz,  tu  dois  etre 
assez  puni.  Voila  ce  que  c'est.  Tous  les  jours  on  se  dit: 
Bah!  j'ai  bien  le  temps.  J'apprendrai  demain.  Et  puis 
tu  vois  ce  qui  arrive  .  .  .  Ah!  g'a  ete  le  grand  malheur  de 
notre  Alsace  de  toujours  remettre  son  instruction  a  de- 
main.  Maintenant  ces  gens-la  sont  en  droit  de'nous  dire: 
Comment!  Vous  pretendiez  etre  Frangais,  et  vous  ne 
savez  ni  parler  ni  ecrire  votre  langue!  .  .  .  Dans  tout  9a, 
mon  pauvre  Frantz,  ce  n'est  pas  encore  toi  le  plus  cou- 
pable.  Nous  avons  tous  notre  bonne  part  de  reproches 
a  nous  faire. 

«Vos  parents  n'ont  pas  assez  tenu  a  vous  voir  instruits. 
lis  aimaient  mieux  vous  envoyer  travailler  a  la  terre  ou 
aux  filatures  pour  avoir  quelques  sous  de  plus.  Moi- 
meme,  n'ai-je  rien  a  me  reprocher?  Est-ce  que  je  ne 
vous  ai  pas  sou  vent  fait  arroser  mon  jardin  au  lieu  de  tra- 
vailler? Et  quand  je  voulais  aller  pecher  des  truites, 
est-ce  que  je  me  genais  pour  vous  donner  conge?))  .  .  . 

Alors,  d'une  chose  a  I'autre,  M.  Hamel  se  mit  a  nous 
parler  de  la  langue  frangaise,  disant  que  c'etait  la  plus 
belle  langue  du  monde,  la  plus  claire,  la  plus  solide,  qu'il 
fallait  la  garder  entre  nous  et  ne  jamais  I'oublier,  parce 
que  quand  un  peuple  tombe  esclave,  tant  qu'il  tient  bien 
sa  langue,  c'est  comme  s'il  tenait  la  clef  de  sa  prison. 
Puis  il  prit  une  grammaire  et  nous  lut  notre  legon.  J'etais 
etonne  de  voir  comme  je  comprenais.  Tout  ce  qu'il  me 
disait  me  semblait  facile,  facile.  Je  crois  aussi  que  je 
n'avais  jamais  si  bien  ecoute  et  que  lui  non  plus  n'avait 
jamais  mis  autant  de  patience  a  ses  explications.     On 


LA   DERNIERE   CLASSE  187 

aurait  dit  qu'avant  de  s'en  aller  le  pauvre  homme  voulait 
nous  donner  tout  son  savoir,  nous  le  f aire  entrer  dans  la 
tete  d'un  seul  coup. 

La  legon  finie,  on  passa  a  I'ecriture.  Pour  ce  jour-la  M. 
Hamel  nous  avait  prepare  des  exemples  tout  neufs,  sur 
lesquels  etait  ecrit  en  belle  ronde:  France,  Alsace,  France, 
Alsace.  Cela  faisait  comme  des  petits  drapeaux  qui  flot- 
taient  tout  autour  de  la  classe  pendus  a  la  tringle  de  nos 
pupitres.  II  fallait  voir  comme  chacun  s'appliquait,  et 
quel  silence !  On  n'entendait  que  le  grincement  des  plumes 
sur  le  papier.  Un  moment  des  hannetons  entrerent;  mais 
personne  n'y  fit  attention,  pas  meme  les  tons  petits,  qui 
s'appliquaient  a  tracer  leurs  batons  avec  un  coeur,  una 
conscience,  comme  si  cela  encore  etait  du  frangais  .  .  . 
Sur  la  toiture  de  I'ecole,  des  pigeons  roucoulaient  tout 
bas,  et  je  me  disais  en  les  ecoutant: 

((Est-ce  qu'on  ne  va  pas  les  obliger  a  chanter  en  alle- 
mand,  eux  aussi?)) 

De  temps  en  temps  quand  je  levais  les  yeux  de  dessus 
ma  page,  je  voyais  M.  Hamel  immobile  dans  sa  chaire  et 
fixant  les  objets  autour  de  lui,  comme  s'il  avait  voulu  em- 
porter  dans  son  regard  toute  sa  petite  maison  d'ecole  .  .  . 
Pensez!  depuis  quarante  ans,  il  etait  la  a  la  meme  place, 
avec  sa  cour  en  face  de  lui  et  sa  classe  toute  pareille, 
Seulement  les  bancs,  les  pupitres  s'etaient  polls,  frottes 
par  I'usage;  les  noyers  de  la  cour  avaient  grandi,  et  le  hou- 
blon  qu'il  avait  plante  lui-meme  enguirlandait  mainte- 
nant  les  fenetres  jufequ'au  toit.  Quel  creve-coeur  ga  devait 
etre  pour  ce  pauvre  homme  de  quitter  toutes  ces  choses, 
et  d'entendre  sa  soeur  qui  allait,  venait,  dans  la  chambre 
au-dessus,  en  train  de  f ermer  leurs  malles !  car  ils  devaient 
partir  le  lendemain,  s'en  aller  du  pays  pour  toujours. 

Tout  de  meme  il  eut  le  courage  de  nous  faire  la  classe 


188  LA  DERNIERE  CLASSE 

jusqu'au  bout.  Apres  I'ecriture,  nous  eumes  la  legon  d'his- 
toire;  ensuite  les  petits  chanterent  le  ba  be  bi  bo  bu.  La- 
bas  au  fond  de  la  salle,  le  vieux  Hauser  avait  mis  ses 
lunettes,  et,  tenant  son  abeeedaire  a  deux  mains,  il  epelait 
les  lettres  avec  eux.  On  voyait  qu'il  s'appliquait,  lui 
aussi;  sa  voix  tremblait  d'emotidn,  et  c'etait  si  drole  de 
I'entendre,  que  nous  avions  tons  envie  de  rire  et  de  pleurer. 
Ah!  je  m'en  souviendrai  de  cette  derniere  classe  .  .  . 

Tout  a  coup  riiorloge  de  Teglise  sonna  midi,  puis  I'An- 
gelus.  Au  meme  moment,  les  trompettes  des  Prussiens 
qui  revenaient  de  Texercice  eclaterent  sous  nos  fenetres 
.  .  .  M.  Hamel  se  leva,  tout  pale,  dans  sa  chaire.  Jamais 
il  ne  m'avait  paru  si  grand. 

((Mes  amis,  dit-il,  mes  amis,  je  .  .  .  je  .  .  .» 

Mais  quelque  chose  I'etouffait.  II  ne  pouvait  pas  ache- 
ver  sa  phrase. 

Alors  il  se  tourna  vers  le  tableau,  prit  un  morceau  de 
craie,  et,  en  appuyant  de  toutes  ses  forces,  il  ecrivit  aussi 
gros  qu'il  put: 

«ViVE  LA  France!)) 

Puis  il  resta  la,  la  tete  appuyee  au  mur,  et,  sans  parler, 
avec  sa  main  il  nous  faisait  signe: 

((C'est  fini  .  .  .  allez-vous-en.)) 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON   ((LA  DERNIERE  CLASSE » 

(Study  especially  the  sections  on  the  subjunctive) 

I.    BEGINNING  TO   ((EN   PASSANT)) 

Although  little  Frantz  is  much  afraid  that  his  master  uill 
scold  him,  he  is-  not  going  to  be  absent  from  the  class.  Do  you 
think  he  can  hear  the  blackbirds  piping  on  the  edge  of  the  wood, 
without  the  thought  coming  to  him  of  running  off  across  the 
fields?    It  is  time  for  the  little  feUow  to  be  running  to  school 


LA   DERNIERE   CLASSE  189 

fast,  if  he  does  not  wish  to  get  there  late.  Although  the  weather 
is  warm  and  bright,  our  little  Frantz  must  not  stay  behind 
the  sawmill  watching  the  Prussians  (206).  He  must  resist,  and 
must  go  to  school  and  learn  the  rule  about  participles.  What 
do  you  wish  him  to  do? 

II.     «EN   PASSANT))   TO   «P'ORDINAIRE)) 

There  he  is  passing  the  town-hall,  without  anyone  thinking  of 
speaking  to  him.  That  is  because  everyone  is  looking  at  the 
little  bulletin-board,  to  see  if  there  is  another  piece  of  bad  news. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  the_  French  have  lost  so  many  battles. 
Provided  you  see  two  or  three  persons  reading  an  order  from 
headquarters,  you  wonder  "What's  up  now?" 

However,  before  Frantz  has  crossed  the  square,  I  fear  the 
blacksmith's  apprentice  will  see  him  and  shout  "Somebody 
stop  him!  Don't  let  hun  hurry  so!  I  don't  wish  him  to  get  to 
his  school  too  soon!"  Do  you  beheve  the  apprentice  wishes  to 
have  him  stopped?  Is  it  possible  that  he  is  making  fun  of 
Frantz,  and  that  he  wishes  to  make  him  enter  the  httle  court- 
yard all  out  of  breath? 

III.     ((D'ORDINAIRE))   TO   «EH   BIEN,   NON!)) 

Do  you  know  what  happens  usually  at  the  beginning  of  the 
class?  If  you  should  ask  the  pupils  to  make  a  racket  that  will 
make  itself  heard  as  far  as  the  street,  they  would  not  act 
otherwise.  "Let  eveiybody  open  and  shut  the  desks!  Let  the 
lessons  be  repeated  aloud;  all  together!  Let  those  who  are 
afraid  of  the  teacher's  big  ruler  stop  their  ears  to  learn  better!" 
Do  you  think  that  is  the  right  way  to  get  a  little  silence? 

Usually  our  little  Frantz  could  have  counted  on  all  this  up- 
roar to  reach  his  seat  without  being  seen.  How  sorry  he  was 
that  that  morning  everything  was  so  quiet!  He  would  have 
liked  Mr.  Hamel  to  be  pounding  on  the  desks.  However  red 
the  httle  boy  was,  and  however  frightened  he  felt,  the  poor 
child  had  to  open  the  door  and  go  in  amid  that  great  calm. 


190  LA  DERNIERE  CLASSE 

IV.     <(EH  BIEN,   NON!))   TO   ((PENDANT  QUE)) 

I  should  like  Mr.  Hamel  to  say  to  him  verj'^  gentlj^,  "Let  the 
one  who  has  just  come  in  go  very  quickly  to  his  place!  Let  him 
sit  down  at  once;  and  let  him  hold  his  book  wide  open  m  front 
of  him!  When  he  has  recovered  from  his  fright  a  little,  he  will 
tell  us  the  rule  about  participles." 

Frantz  felt  much  surprised  that  Mr.  Hamel  had  put  on  his 
handsome  green  frock-coat.  You  would  have  thought  it  was  an 
inspection  day,  the  class  was  so  still.  But  however  sad  the 
pupils  were,  the  most  solemn  faces  Uttle  Frantz  had  ever  seen 
were  those  of  old  Hauser  and  the  former  mayor.  The  latter  was 
sitting  quite  at  the  back  of  the  room,  and  the  former  had  just  put 
on  his  big  spectacles  to  see  better  the  old  primer  whose  pages 
he  was  turning. 

V.    ((PENDANT  QUE))  TO   ((PAUVRE  HOMME)) 

Are  you  surprised  that  Mr.  Hamel's  voice  was  gentle  and 
serious?  Unless  little  Frantz  is  a  wretch,  he  will  long  remember 
the  last  words  his  teacher  spoke  in  that  little  school.  Do  you 
wonder  that  they  upset  him?  Whatever  they  do  in  BerUn,  and 
whatever  language  they  teach  in  the  Alsatian  schools,  in  their 
homes  the  httle  Alsatians  will  always  speak  French.  Although 
they  have  wasted  their  time  running  after  nests  and  making 
sUdes,  one  must  not  hold  it  against  them.  At  present,  their 
books,  hea\'y  as  they  are,  seem  old  friends  to  them.  Wait  untU 
Mr.  Hamel  has  gone,  and  the  pupils  no  longer  see  him;  they  will 
soon  have  forgotten  the  punishments  he  has  inflicted  upon  them. 


VL     ((PAUVRE  HOMME))   TO   ((VOS  PARENTS)) 

While  waiting  for  the  old  men  of  the  \dllage  to  come  and  sit 
at  the  end  of  the  room,  Mr.  Hamel  had  gone  and  put  on  his  fine 
Sunday  clothes.  He  is  sorry  they  have  not  come  there  oftener. 
Before  they  go  away,  he  wishes  them  to  have  the  pupils  recite. 
If  only  the  latter  do  not  get  snarled  up  at  the  first  words!    He 


LA   DERNlfiRE   CLASSE  191 

would  not  like  them  to  stand  swaying  in  their  seats  without  say- 
ing anything.  Let  the  old  men  ask  little  Frantz  for  a  rule  that 
will  be  very  clear;  he  will  tell  them  the  famous  rule  about  parti- 
ciples without  a  mistake,  quite  loud,  at  full  length.  Did  they 
think  he  would  not  dare  to  look  up? 

How  unfortunate  that  some  pupils  have  put  off  their  educa- 
tion until  the  morrow,  and  that  they  scarcely  know  how  to  read 
and  write!  Now,  the  least  they  can  do  is  to  be  attentive  and 
listen  to  the  teacher.  Still,  they  are  not  the  guiltiest  people  I 
know;  and  it  is  right  for  their  parents  to  assume  their  fair  share 
of  reproaches. 

VIL     ((VOS  PARENTS))   TO   «DE  TEMPS  EN  TEMPS)) 

I  am  bound  to  have  you  educated.  Although  you  might  earn 
a  few  cents  more  by  working  on  the  land  or  in  the  mills,  you 
would  be  sorry  later  that  your  parents  had  not  sent  you  to  school 
longer.  No  doubt  you  like  to  go  trout-fishing  better  than  to 
work,  but  it  is  time  for  you  to  know  your  own  language,  that 
beautiful  French  language,  the  clearest,  the  strongest  there  is 
in  the  world.  Even  if  you  had  to  fall  into  slavery,  as  long  as 
you  kept  your  language  well,  it  would  be  as  if  you  held  the  key 
of  your  prison.  Let  me  take  this  grammar  and  read  you  your 
lesson.    You  will  be  surprised  that  you  found  it  hard. 

Before  you  go  away,  I  wish  you  to  hear  me  patiently.  If  only 
I  can  make  a  httle  knowledge  enter  your  heads!  Let  us  go  on 
writing!  To-day  you  must  apply  yourselves  conscientiously, 
copjdng  in  a  fine  round  hand  the  new  models  I  have  prepared 
for  you.  The  little  boys  must  not  pay  attention  to  the  June-bugs 
nor  to  the  pigeons.  Do  you  think  they  are  going  to  make  them 
sing  in  German? 

VIIL     ((DE  TEMPS  EN  TEMPS))   TO  END 

Is  it  possible  that  Mr.  Hamel  has  remained  for  forty  years 
teaching  such  youngsters?  Must  (not)  he  have  wonderful 
patience  and  courage!    Tell  the  Uttle  fellows  to  chant  their  ba. 


192  LA  DERNlfiRE  CLASSE 

BE,  Bi,  BO,  BU  more  softly,  so  that  the  big  (boys)  may  hear 
plainly  all  that  Mr.  Hamel  says  to  them.  Do  you  wonder  that 
old  Hauser  feels  like  crying?  Do  you  hear  him  speUing  the 
letters  with  the  little  ones?  Oh,  he  will  remember  this  last 
class! 

I  hope  that  Mr.  Hamel  can  hold  out  till  the  end.  Although 
he  is  very  pale,  and  liis  voice  is  trembling  with  emotion,  I  think 
he  will  hear  our  history  class.  I  do  not  think  he  will  go  away 
without  saying  a  few  words  to  us  about  the  great  men  who 
have  loved  France  and  labored  for  her. 

He  turns  to  the  board  and  takes  a  piece  of  chalk,  but,  before 
he  has  begun  to  write,  the  trumpets  of  the  Prussians  burst  out 
under  the  windows.  Noon!  Let  everyone  rise !  Let  us  shout 
all  together,  "Hurrah  for  Mr.  Hamel!  Hurrah  for  France!" 
Then  let  us  go  away,  without  speaking,  leaving  there,  leaning 
against  the  wall,  that  poor  man  who  has  worked  so  hard  to  make 
us  worthy  of  the  fatherland. 


ESSENTIAL    VERB-FORMS 


Irregular  derived  forms  are  printed  under  the  principal  part 
from  which  the  particular  form  is  usually  derived. 


Infinitive 

Pres. 
Participle 

Past 
Participle 

Pres. 
Ind. 

Past  Def. 

dormer,  give 

dormant 

donne 

donne 

donnai 

finir,  finish 

finissant 

fini 

finis 

finis 

rompre,  break 

rompant 

rompu 

romps 

rompis 

1. 

absoudre,  absolve 
So  dissoudre, 

;     absolvant 

dissolve. 

absous 
(absoute) 

absous 

absolus 

2. 

acquerir,  acquire 

acquerant 

acquis 

acquiers  acquis 

acquerrai 

acquiere(nt) 

So  conquerir, 

conquer. 

3. 

aller,  go 

aUant 

(etre)  alle 

vais 

allai 

irai 

vont 
aille(nt) 

vas,  va 
va 

4. 

assaillir,  assail 
So  tressaillir, 

assaillant 

tremble. 

assailli 

assaille 

assaillit 

5. 

asseoir,  seat 
assierai 

asseyant 

assis 

assieds 

assis 

So  rasseoir,  seat  again. 

6. 

avoir,  have 

ayant 

eu 

ai 

eus 

aurai 

avons,  ont 
avals 
ayons 
aie,  ait 
ayons,  aient 

as,  a 
aie 

7. 

battre,  heat 

battant 

battu 

bats 

battis 

8. 

boire,  drink 

buvant 
boive(nt) 

bu 

bois 

bus 

9. 

.   boiiillir,  boil 

bouillant 

bomlli 

bous 

bouillis 

10. 

.   conclure,  conclude    concluant 

conclu 

conclus 

conclus 

So  exclxire,  exclude. 

193 

194  ESSENTIAL   VERB-FORMS 

TwFiwTTTvp  Pres.  Past  Pres.        t>         t-. 

INFINITIVE  Participle       Participle  Ind.  ^-^^^  ^ef. 

11.  conduire,  conduct     condxiisant      condviit        conduis   condmsis 

So  cuire  and  verbs  in  -duire  and  -tniire. 

12.  confire,  preserve       confisant         confit  confis       confis 

So  deconfire,  discomfit. 

13.  connaitre,  knoiv       connaissant    connu  connais   connus 

Connaitre  has  i  in  the  stem  everywhere  before  t. 

So  reconnaitre,  recognize,  and  paraitre,  appear,  with  its  com- 
pounds; also  paitre,  graze,  and  repaitre, /eed,  which  lack  the 
past  definite. 

14.  coudre,  seiv  cousant  cousu  couds      cousis 

So  decoudre,  rip,  and  recoudre,  sew  again. 

15.  courir,  run  courant  couru  cours       courus 
courrai 

So  compounds  of  courir. 

16.  couvrir,  cover  couvrant         couvert       couvre     couvris 

So  offrir,  offer,  ouvrir,  open,  souflfrir,  suffer,  and  compounds. 

17.  craindre, /ear  craignant        craint  crains      craignis 

So  all  verbs  in  -alndre,  -eindre,  and  -oindre. 

18.  croire,  believe  croyant  cru  crois        cms 

croie(nt) 

19.  croitre,  grow  croissant         cru  crois        cnis 

(crue)  crusse 

Compounds  of  croitre  except  surcroitre  take  no  (*)  in  past 
participle  or  past  definite. 

20.  cueillir,  pick  cueillant         cueilli  cueille     cueillis 
cueillerai 

So  accueillir,  welcome,  and  recueillir,  gather. 

21.  devoir,  owe  devant  du  (due)     dois         dus 
devrai                      doive(nt) 

22.  dire,  say  disant  dit  dis  dis 

dites 
So  redire,  to  say  again. 
In  other  compounds  of  dire,  the  derived  parts  are  regularly 

formed. 
Maudire  has  present  participle  maudissant. 


ESSENTIAL  VERB-FORMS 


195 


Pres. 
Participle 


Past 
Participle 


Ind. 

dormir,  sleep  dormant  dormi  dors 

So  mentir,  lie,  partir,  leave,  se  repentir,  repent, 
sortir,  go  out,  and  most  of  their  compounds, 
sortir  are  conjugated  with  etre. 
echoir,  fall  due        echeant  echu  echois 

echerra  echoyait 

echoie 
ecrire,  write  ecrivant  ecrit  ecris 

So  compounds  of  ecrire,  inscrire,  inscribe,  etc. 


Past  Def. 

dermis 
sentir,  feel, 
Partir  and 


echus 


envoyer,  send  envoyant 

enverrai  envoie(nt) 

So  renvoyer,  send  back. 


envoye        envoie     envoyai 


etre,  be 

etant 

ete 

suls 

fus 

serai 

sommes 
etes,  sont 
soyons 
sois,  soyons 
soient 

es,  est 
sois 

faire,  do 

faisant 

fait 

fais 

fis 

ferai 

faites,  font 
faites 
fasse 
fassions 

So  compounds 

of  faire. 

falloir,  be  neces- 

not used 

fallu 

faut 

fallu 

sary 

faUait 

faudra 

faille 

fuir,  flee 

fuyant 

fuie(nt) 

fui 

fuis 

fuis 

hair,  hate 

haissant 

hai 

hais 

hais 

lire,  read 

lisant 

lu 

lis 

lus 

So  compounds  of  lire. 

mettre,  put 

mettant 

mis 

mets 

mis 

So  compounds 

of  mettre. 

moudre,  grind 

moiilant 

moulu 

mouds 

moul 

So  compounds 

of  moudre. 

196 


ESSENTIAL  VERB-FORMS 


Infinitive 

35.  mourir,  die 
mourrai 

36.  mouvoir,  move 
mouvrai 


Pres. 
Participle 


mourant 
meure(nt) 


Past 
Participle 


Pre8. 
Ind. 


(etre)mort  mexirs 


Past  Def. 
mourus 


mu  (mue)   meus       mus 


mouvant 
meuve(nt) 

So  promouvoir,  promote,  and  emouvoir,  excite,  except  past 
participle  promu,  emu. 

37.  naitre,  he  horn         naissant  (etre)  ne     nais         naquis 

Naitre  has  i  in  the  stem  everywhere  before  t. 
So  renaitre,  he  horn  again. 

38.  nuire,  harm  nuisant  nui  mils         nuisis 

So  luire,  shine,  except  that  past  definite  and  imperfect  sub- 
jmictive  are  wanting. 

39.  plaire,  -please  plaisant  plu  plais         plus 

plait 
So  compounds  of  plaire ;  and  taire,  he  silent,  except  3d  sin- 
gular present  indicative  tait. 

40.  pleuvoir,  rain  pleuvant         plu  pleut        plut 

41.  •poxiTvoir,  provide      pourvoyant     pourvu         pourvois  pourvus 
pourvoirai  pourvoie(nt) 

So  depoiu-voir,  leave  destitute. 

42.  pouvoir,  be  able        pouvant 
poiurai  peuvent 

puisse 
puissions 


pu 


13.   prendre,  take           prenant 

pris 

premie  (nt) 

So  compounds  of  prendre. 

[4.   recevoir,  receive       recevant 

refu 

recevrai                    refoive(nt) 

So  verbs  in  -cevoir. 

[5.   resoudre,  resolve      resolvant 

resolu 

(resous) 

16.   rire,  laugh                riant 

ri 

peux        pus 
or  puis 
no  im- 
perative 

prends 


pns 


refois      refus 


resous     resolus 


So  sourire.  smile. 


ESSENTIAL  VERB-FORMS 


197 


Pres. 
Participle 

Past 
Participle 

Pres. 
Ind. 

Past  De: 

sachant 

su 

sals 

sus 

Savons 

sache 

savais 

suffisant 

suffi 

suffis 

suffis 

suivant 

suivi 

suis 

suivis 

Infinitive 
47.   savoir,  k7iow 


48.  suffire,  suffice 

49.  suivre,  follow 

So  poursuivre,  pursue. 

50.  tenir,  hold  tenant  tenu  tiens        tins 
tiendrai                     tienne(nt) 

So  compounds  of  tenir;  also  venir,  come,  and  its  compounds 
(auxiliary  etre). 


51.   traire,  milk 


trayant 


trais 


no  past 
def. 


So  compounds  of  traire. 
52.   vaincre,  conquer       vainquant 
So  convaincre,  convince. 


valu 


vainc       vauiquis 


valus 


53.   valoir,  be  worth        valant 
vaudrai  valent 

vaille(nt) 
So  equivaloir,  equal;  re  valoir,  pay  back;  and  prevaloir,  prevail, 
except  that  present  subjunctive  of  prevaloir  is  regular. 


54 


vetu 


vets 


vetis 


vetir,  clothe  vetant 

So  compounds  of  vetir. 

55.  vivre,  live  vivant  vecu  vis  vecus 

So  revivre,  revive;  survivre,  survive. 

56.  voir,  see  voyant  vu  vois  vis 
verrai                        voie(nt) 

So  compounds   of  voir;   except  prevoir,  foresee,   which  has 
future  prevoirai._ 

57.  vouloir,  wish  voulant  voulu  veux        voulus 
voudrai                      veulent  Imp.  reg. 

veuille(nt)  also 

veuillez. 


INDEX   TO   IRREGULAR   VERBS 


The  figures  refer 

absoudre,  1 
abstenir,  50 
abstraire,  51 
accourir,  15 
accroire,  18 
accroltre,  19 
accueillir,  20 
acquerir,  2 
admettre,  33 
advenir,  50 
aller,  3 

apercevoir,  44 
apparaitre,  13 
apparteiiir,  50 
apprendre,  43 
assaillir,  4 
asseoir,  5 
astreindre,  17 
atteindre,  17 
attraire,  51 
avenir,  50 
avoir,  6 
boire,  8 
bouillir,  9 
ceindre,  17 
circonscrire,  25 
circonvenir,  50 
commettre,  33 
comparaitre,  13 
complaire,  39 


to  the  numbers  of  the  verbs  in  the  preceding  list. 


comprendre,  43 
compromettre,  33 
concevoir,  44 
conclure,  10 
concourir,  15 
conduire,  11 
confire,  12 
conjoindre,  17 
connaitre,  13 
conquerir,  2 
consentir,  23 
construire,  11 
contenir,  50 
contraindre,  17 
contredire,  22 
contrefaire,  28 
contrevenir,  50 
convaincre,  52 
convenir,  50 
coudre,  14 
courir,  15 
couvrir,  16 
craindre,  17 
croire,  18 
croitre,  19 
cueillir,  20 
cuire,  11 
d^cevoir,  44 
deconfire,  12 
d^coudre,  14 
198 


decouvrir,  16 
decrire,  25 
decroire,  18 
d^croitre,  19 
d^dire,  22 
deduire,  11 
d^faire,  28 
d^joindre,  17 
dementir,  23 
demettre,  33 
d^partir,  23 
depeindre,  17 
deplaire,  39 
d^pourvoir,  41 
desapprendre,  43 
desservir,  23 
deteindre,  17 
d^tenir,  50 
d^truire,  11 
devenir,  50 
d^vetir,  54 
devoir,  21 
dire,  22 

disconvenir,  50 
discourir,  15 
disjoindre,  17 
disparaitre,  13 
dissoudre,  1 
dorrnir,  23 
distraire,  51 


INDEX   TO   IRREGULAR  VERBS 


199 


11 


^bouillir,  9 
^choir,  24 
6conduire, 
6crire,  25 
6Ure,  32 
emboire,  8 
6mettre,  33 
^moudre,  34 
^mouvoir,  36 
empreindre,  17 
enceindre,  17 
encourir,  15 
endormir,  23 
enduire,  11 
enfreindre,  17 
enfuir,  30 
enjoindre,  17 
enquerir,  2 
ensuivre,  49 
entreprendre,  43 
entretenir,  50 
entrevoir,  56 
entr'ouvrir,  16 
envoyer,  26 
^preindre,  17 
^prendre,  43 
^quivaloir,  53 
^teindre,  17 
etre,  27 
etreindre,  17 
exclure,  10 
extraire,  51 
faire,  28 
falloir,  29 
fcindre,  17 
forfaire,  28 


fuir,  30 
geindre,  17 
hair,  31 
imboire,  8 
induire,  11 
inscrire,  25 
instruire,  11 
interdire,  22 
intervenir,  50 
introduire,  11 
joindre,  17 
lire,  32 
luire,  38 
maintenir,  50 
malfaire,  28 
maudire,  22 
meconnaitre, 
medire,  22 
mefaire,  28 
mentir,  23 
meprendre,  43 
messeoir,  5 
mettre,  33 
moudre,  34 
mourir,  35 
mouvoir,  36 
naitre,  37 
nuire,  38 
obtenir,  50 
offrlr,  16 
oindre,  17 
omettre,  33 
ouvrir,  16 
paitre,  13 
paraitre,  13 
parcourir,  15 


13 


parfaire,  28 
partir,  23 
parvenir,  50 
peindre,  17 
percevoir,  44 
permettre,  33 
plaindre,  17 
plaire,  39 
pleuvoir,  40 
poindre,  17 
poursuivre,  49 
pourvoir,  41 
pouvoir,  42 
predire,  22 
prendre,  43 
prescrire,  25 
pressentir,  23 
prevaloir,  53 
prevenir,  50 
prevoir,  56 
produire,  11 
promettre,  33 
promouvoir,  36 
proscrire,  25 
provenir,  50 
querir,  2 
rapprendre,  43 
rasseoir,  5 
ratteindre,  17 
reboire,  8 
rebouillir,  9 
recevoir,  44 
reclure,  10 
reconduire,  11 
reconnaitre,  13 
reconquerir,  2 


200 


INDEX  TO   IRREGULAR  VERBS 


reconstruire,  11 
recoudre,  14 
recourir,  15 
recouvrir,  16 
recrire,  25 
recroitre,  19 
recueillir,  20 
recuire,  11 
redeveiiir,  50 
rede  voir,  21 
redire,  22 
redormir,  23 
reduire,  11 
reelire,  32 
refaire,  28 
rejoindre,  17 
relire,  32 
remettre,  33 
reluire,  38 
remoudre,  34 
rendormir,  23 
renaitre,  37 
rentraire,  51 
renvoyer,  26 
repaitre,  13 
repartir,  23 
repeindre,  17 
repentir,  23 


reprendre,  43 
requerir,  2 
r^soudre,  45 
ressentir,  23 
ressortir,  23 
ressouvenir,  50 
restreindre,  17 
reteindre,  17 
retenir,  50 
retraire,  51 
revaloir,  53 
revenir,  50 
revetir,  54 
revivre,  55 
revoir,  56 
rire,  46 
rouvrir,  16 
satisfaire,  28 
savoir,  47 
secourir,  15 
seduire,  11 
sentir,  23 
seoir,  5 
servir,  23 
sortir,  23 
souffrir,  16 
soumettre,  33 
sourire,  46 


souscrire,  25 
soustraire,  51 
soutenir,  50 
souvenir,  50 
subvenir,  50 
suffire,  48 
suivre,  49 
surcroitre,  19 
surf  aire,  28 
surprendre,  43 
surseoir,  5 
survenir,  50 
survivre,  55 
taire,  39 
teindre,  17 
tenir,  50 
traduire,  11 
traire,  51 
transcrire,  25 
transmettre,  33 
tressaillir,  4 
vaincre,  52 
valoir,  53 
venir,  50 
vetir,  54 
vivre,  55 
voir,  56 
vouloir,  57 


VOCABULARY 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


a  [a],  see  avoir. 

a  [a],  to,  toward,  at,  for,  in,  with, 
by,  from.     §  202. 

abandonner  [abadone],  to  aban- 
don. 

abbe  [abe],  tn.,  abbot. 

abesse  [abes],  /.,  abbess. 

abecedaire  [abesedeir],  m., 
primer. 

aboiement  [abwama],  m.,  bark- 
ing. 

abolir  [aboliir],  to  abolish. 

abominable  [abominabl],  abom- 
inable. 

abord  (d')  [daboir],  at  first. 

aboyer  [abwaje],  to  bark. 

absent  [apsa],  absent,  away. 

absolu  [apsoly],  absolute;  — ment, 
absolutely. 

abuser  [abyze],  to  abuse. 

accentuer  (s')  [sakscltqe],  to  be- 
come stronger. 

acces  [akse],  m.,  fit. 

accident  [aksida],  m.,  accident. 

accidente  [aksidate],  uneven,  ir- 
regular, hilly. 

accusateur,  -trice  [akj'zata?:r, 
-tris],  m..,  /.,  accuser. 

accuser  [akyze],  to  accuse;  les 
accuses,  the  defendants. 

acheter  [a^te],  to  buy. 

achever  [a$ve],  to  finish,  com- 
plete. 


acquerir  [akeriir],  irr.,  to  acquire. 

acta  [akt],  m.,  act. 

acteur,  -trice  [aktoeir,  -tris],  m., 
/.,  actor,  actress. 

actif,  -ve  [aktif,  -ti:v],  active, 
alert. 

action  [aksjS], /.,  act,  action. 

adieu  [adjo],  good-by,  farewell. 

adjectif  [adsektif],  m.,  adjective. 

admirable  [admirabl],  admirable. 

admirer  [admire],  to  admire. 

adresser  [adrese],  s' —  a,  to  ad- 
dress, speak  to. 

adroit  [adrwa],  adroit,  clever. 

adroitement  [adrwatma],  clever- 
ly, adroitly. 

adverbe  [adverb],  m.,  adverb. 

affaire  [afeir],  /.,  affair,  matter, 
business;  ses  — s,  his  business. 

afSche  [afi^],  /.,  poster,  bill. 

afficher  [afi^e],  to  post  up. 

afin  de  [afe  da],  in  order  to. 

afin  que  [afe  ka],  in  order  that. 

affreux  [afro],  frightful. 

Afrique  [afrik],  /.,  Africa. 

age  [0:5],  m.,  age;  quel  —  avez- 
vous?  how  old  are  you? 

age  [a3e],  old;  moins  — ,  younger. 

agilite  [asilite],/.,  agility,  nimble- 
ness. 

agir  [asiir],  to  act;  s' — ,  imper- 
sonal, to  concern,  be  a  question 
of. 

agitation  [asitasjo],/.,  uneasiness, 
excitement. 


203 


204 


VOCABULARY 


agiter  [a5ite],  to  shake,  stir. 

agneau  [ajio],  m.,  lamb. 

agriculture  [agrikyltyir],  /.,  agri- 
culture. 

ai  [e],  see  avoir. 

aide  [ed],/.,  aid,  relief,  assistance. 

aider  [ede],  to  help,  aid. 

aigu,  -e  [egy],  sharp,  piercing. 

ailleurs  [ajoeir],  elsewhere;  d' — , 
moreover. 

aimer  [eme],  to  love,  like. 

ainsi  [esi],  thus,  so. 

air  [e:r],  m.,  air,  look,  manner. 

Ajaccio  [asaksjo],  Ajaccio,  city 
of  Corsica. 

ajouter  [asute],  to  add;  s' — ,  to 
be  added. 

alerte  [alert],  alert,  swift. 

Alice  [alls],  Alice. 

Allemagne  [almaji],/.,  Germany. 

Allemand  [alma],  German. 

aller  [ale],  irr.,  to  go;  s'en  — ,  to 
go  away;  allons!  come!;  — - 
chercher  (trouver),  to  go  for, 
go  to  get ;  comment  allez-vous? 
how  are  you?;  il  y  va  de,  there 
is  at  stake. 

alliance  [alja:s],  /.,  alliance. 

allie  [alje],  m.,  ally. 

allumer-  [alyme],  to  light. 

allure  [aly:r],  /.,  pace. 

alors  [abir],  then,  at  that  time. 

Alpes  [alp],  /.  pi.,  Alps. 

Alsace  [alsas],  /.,  Alsace. 

altitude  [altityd],  /.,  altitude, 
height. 

ambassadeur,  -drice  [ubasadoeir, 
-dris],  lit.,  f.,  ambassador. 

amener  [amne],  to  bring,  con- 
duct, escort. 

americain,  -e  [amerike,  -en], 
American. 

Amerique  [amerik],  /.,  America. 

ami  [ami],  m.,  friend. 


amitie  [amitje],  /.,  friendship. 

amour  [amu:r],  m.,  love. 

amovible  [amovibl],  removable, 
subject  to  transfer. 

amuser  [amyze],  to  amuse;  s' — 
bien,  to  have  a  good  time. 

an  [a],  m.,  year;  avoir  seize  — s, 
to  be  sixteen  years  old;  jour 
de  r — ,  New-year's-day. 

ancien,  -ne  [asje,  -jen],  old;  for- 
mer. 

Angelus  [aselys],  Angelus. 

anglais,  -e  [agle,  -e:z],  English. 

Angleterre  [aglte:r],  /.,  England. 

angoisse  [agwas],  /.,  agony. 

animal  [animal],  m.,  animal. 

aout  [u],  m.,  August. 

annee  [ane],  /.,  year. 

apaiser  [apeze],  to  appease,  calm. 

apercevoir  [apersovwa:r],  irr., 
see  recevoir,  to  see,  perceive. 

appartenir  [apartaniir],  irr.,  see 
tenir,  to  belong. 

appeler  [aple],  to  call;  s' — ,  to 
be  named;  comment  vous  ap- 
pelez-vous?  what  is  your 
name? 

appetit  [apeti],  m.,  appetite;  1' — ■ 
vient  en  mangeant,  appetite 
comes  as  one  eats. 

appliquer  [aplike],  to  apply. 

apporter  [aporte],  to  bring. 

apprendre  [apraidr],  irr.,  see 
prendre,  to  learn,  teach,  in- 
form. 

apprenti  [aprati],  771.,  apprentice. 

approbation  [aprobasjo],  /.,  ap- 
probation, approval. 

approcher  [apro^e],  to  bring  near; 
s' — ■  de,  to  approach. 

approuver  [apruve],  to  approve. 

appuyer  [apqije],  to  support, 
bear  down;  s' —  a,  to  lean 
against,  support  oneseK  by. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


205 


apres  [apre],  after;  —  {with  past 
inf.),  —  que  (with  indie), 
after;  d' — ,  according  to. 

apres-demain  [apredme],  m.,  day 
after  to-morrow. 

apres-midi  [apremidi],  771.  or  /., 
afternoon. 

arbre  [arbr],  771.,  tree. 

arbuste  [arbyst],  j/i.,  bush,  shrub, 
small  tree. 

archeveque  [ar^aveik],  m.,  arch- 
bishop. 

architecte  [ar^itekt],  m.,  archi- 
tect. 

argent  [arsa],  m.,  silver,  money. 

Armagnac  [armajiak],  m.,  Ar- 
magnac,  follower  of  the  Count 
of  Armagnac. 

armee  [arme],  /.,  army. 

armement  [armgma],  m.,  arma- 
ment, military  preparations. 

arreter  [arete],  to  arrest;  s' — ,  to 
stop. 

arrivee  [arive],  /.,  arrival. 

arriver  [arive],  to  come,  arrive. 

arroser  [aroze],  to  water. 

arsenal  [arsenal],  m.,  arsenal. 

article  [artikl],  ?».,  article. 

artillerie  [artijri],/.,  artillery. 

artiste  [artist],  )n.,  /.,  artist. 

Artois  [artwa],  ??;.,  Artois. 

ascension  [asasjo],  /.,  ascent. 

Asie  [azi],/.,  Asia. 

assailUr  [asajiir],  to  assail,  attack. 

assassin  [asase],  711.,  murderer. 

assemblee  [asable],  /.,  assembly. 

asseoir  [aswair],  irr.,  to  seat;  s' — , 
to  sit  {the  act) ;  etre  assis,  to  be 
seated  or  sitting  {the  positio/i). 

assez  [ase],  enough;  rather. 

assidument  [asidyma],  diligently. 

assieger  [asje3e],  to  besiege. 

assistance  [asistais],  /.,  those 
present. 


assister  [asiste],  to  be  present; 
les  assistants,  those  present. 

assoupir  (s')  [sasupiir],  to  fall 
asleep. 

assure  [asyre],  confident. 

attacher  [ata^e],  to  tie,  lash, 
make  fast,  fix. 

attendre  [ataidr],  to  wait,  await, 
wait  for;  s' —  a,  to  expect. 

attente  [ata:t],  /.,  waiting,  ex- 
pectation; salle  d' — ,  waiting- 
room. 

attentif,  -ve  [atatif,  -ti:v],  atten- 
tive. 

attention  [atasjS],  /.,  attention; 
faire  — ,  to  pay  attention. 

attirer  [atire],  to  draw,  attract. 

attraper  [atrape],  to  catch. 

au  [o],  contractlo7i  of  a  and  le. 

aucun  [okde],  any,  none,  no  {neg- 
ative if  verb  is  preceded  by  ne, 
or  is  o/7iitted). 

aucunement  [okynma],  in  no 
wise,  not  at  all. 

au-dessous  [od.>su  or  otsu],  be- 
low, beneath;  —  de,  below. 

au-dessus  [odasy  or  otsy],  above, 
over;  —  de,  over. 

augmenter  [.)gmdte],  to  increase, 
grow  longer. 

aujourd'hui  [osurdqi],  to-day. 

aupres  de  [opre  da],  near,  very 
close  to,  beside. 

auquel  [okel],  contractio7i  of  k  and 
lequel. 

aurore  [oro:r],  /.,  dawn;  adj., 
golden  (in  color). 

aussi  [osi],  also,  so,  as,  too. 

aussitot  [osito],  immediately,  at 
once. 

autant  [ota],  as  much,  as  many; 
d' —  plus,  so  much  the  more. 

automne  [oton],  /n.,  autumn,  fall. 

autour  de  [otuir  da],  around. 


206 


VOCABULARY 


autre  [oitr],  other.    §§  88,  89a. 

autrefois  [otrfwa],  formerly. 

autrement  [otrma],  otherwise. 

Autriche  [otri^],  /.,  Austria. 

autrul[otrqi],  other  people.  §896. 

Auvergne  [overji],  /.,  Auvergne. 

avaler  [avale],  to  swallow,  gobble 
down. 

avance  [ava:s],/.,  advance;  en  — , 
ahead  of  time. 

avancer  (s')  [savase],  to  advance. 

avant  [ava],  before;  —  de,  be- 
fore (with  inf.);  en  — ,  for- 
ward. 

avant-hier  [ava(t)je:r],  m.,  day 
before  yesterday. 

avant  que  [ava  ka],  conj.,  before 
(ivith  subj.). 

avec  [avek]  with;  —  les  mains, 
hand  over  hand.     §  208. 

avenement  [avenma],  m.,  acces- 
sion. 

avenir  [avniir],  ?m.,  future. 

aventiu-er  [avatyre],  to  adven- 
ture, risk;  s' — ,  to  venture. 

avertir  [averti:r],  to  warn. 

aveuglement  [avoegbma],  to., 
blindness. 

aveuglement  [avoeglema],  blind- 

ly- 

avide    [avid],    greedy;    — ment, 

greedily. 
avis  [avi],  m.,  opinion. 
avocat  [avokat],  m.,  lawyer. 
avoir  [avwair],  to  have,  get;  y — , 

to  be   (impersonal);  qu'est-ce 

qu'il   a?  what  is  the  matter 

with  him?;  —  froid,  to  be  cold; 

—  quinze  ans,   to  be  fifteen 

years  old. 
avril  [avril],  to.,  April. 
Azincourt    [asekuir],    to.,    Agin- 

court,  village  in  northwest  of 

France. 


B 

bachelier  [baSalje],  bachelor  (of 
arts,  law,  etc.). 

bague  [bag],  /.,  ring. 

bah  [ba],  bah! 

balancer  [balase],  to  balance, 
swing,  hesitate. 

balle  [bal],  /.,  ball,  bullet. 

banc  [ba],  m.,  bench,  seat. 

banque  [ba:k],  /.,  bank. 

banqueroute  [bakrut],  /.,  bank- 
ruptcy, insolvency. 

barbare  [barbair],  barbarous; 
barbarian. 

barrer  [baire],  to  bar,  obstruct. 

bas  [ba],  m.,  stocking. 

bas,  -se  [ba,  bas],  low;  la , 

yonder;  en  — ,  down-stairs; 
parler  — ,  to  speak  softly. 

bastille  [bastiij],  /.,  prison,  fort- 
ress; La  Bastille,  the  Bastile 
St.  Antoine. 

batave  [bataiv],  Batavian,  Dutch. 

bateau  [bato],  to.,  boat. 

batir  [batiir],  to  build. 

baton  [bats],  to.,  stick,  straight 
line. 

battre  [battr],  irr.,  to  beat,  buffet; 
se  — ,  to  fight. 

bavarder  [bavarde],  to  chatter, 
gossip. 

beau,  bel,  belle,  pi.  beaux,  belles 
[bo,  bel],  beautiful,  fine,  hand- 
some, noble. 

beaucoup  [boku],  much,  many, 
a  great  deal. 

beau-pere  [bope:r],  to.,  father-in- 
law. 

beaute  [bote],  /.,  beauty. 

Belgique  [bel3ik],  /.,  Belgium. 

benin,  -igne  [bene,  -iji],  benign. 

berger,  -ere  [berse,  -5e:r],  shep- 
herd, shepherdess. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


20; 


Berlin  [berle],  m.,  Berlin. 

besoin  [bezwe],  m.,  need;  avoir 
— ,  to  need. 

bete  [belt],/.,  beast,  animal,  block- 
head, silly;  adj.,  foolish. 

beurre  [boeir],  tn.,  butter. 

bien  [bje],  well,  very,  really, 
surely,of  course;  —  que  (subj.), 
although;  —  des  choses,  many 
tilings. 

bien  [bje],  ?«.,  good(s),  property. 

bientot  [bjeto],  soon. 

bienvenu  [bjevany],  m.,  welcome; 
soyez  le  —,  (be)  welcome ! 

biere  [bje:r],  /.,  beer. 

bille  [bi:j],  /.,  marble. 

billet  [bije],  m.,  note,  ticket. 

blamer  [blame],  to  blame. 

blanc,  -he  [bla,  bla:^],  white, 
clean. 

blanchir  [bla^iir],  to  grow  white, 
make  wliite. 

blesser  [blese],  to  wound. 

bleu  [bio],  blue. 

blond  [bl5],  blonde,  light-com- 
plexioned. 

Boileau  [bwalo],  m.,  Boileau. 

boire  [bwair],  irr.,  to  drink. 

bois  [bwa],  7n.,  wood,  woods, 
forest. 

boiteux,  -se  [bwato,  -0iz],  lame. 

bon,  -ne  [bo,  bon],  good,  kind; 
sentir  — ,  to  smell  sweet;  de 
bonne  heure,  early. 

Bonaparte  [bonapart],  m.,  Bona- 
parte. 

bond  [bo],  m.,  bound,  leap. 

bonheur  [bonoeir],  m.,  happiness, 
good  fortune. 

bonhonune  [bonom],  m.,  old  fel- 
low. 

boimet  [bone],  m.,  cap. 

bonte  [bSte],  /.,  kindness. 

bord  [bo:r],  edge,  margin;  mange 


aux  — s,  worn  at  the  edges, 
dog-eared. 

Bossuet  [bosqe],  m.,  Bossuet. 

bouc  [buk],  7n.,  buck,  he-goat. 

boucher  [bu^e],  to  stop  up,  cork. 

bouger  [buse],  to  stir,  move. 

bouillonnement  [bujonma],  w., 
boiling,  roaring. 

bouleverser  [bulverse],  to  upset, 
overturn. 

bouquet  [buke],  m.,  bouquet. 

bourgeois  [burswa],  m.,  well-to- 
do     commoner;     pi.,     middle 


Bourgogne  [burgoji],  /.,  Burgun- 
dy. 

Bourguignon  [burgijio],  w.,  Bur- 
gundian,  follower  of  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy. 

boursier  [bursje],  m.,  scholarship- 
pupil;  pupil  whose  tuition-fee 
is  remitted. 

bout  [bu],  m.,  end. 

branche  [bra:S],  /.,  branch. 

bras  [bras],  m.,  arm. 

brave  [braiv],  brave,  gallant, 
worthy,  honest. 

brebis  [brobi],  /.,  sheep. 

bref,  breve  [bref,  breiv],  short, 
brief. 

Brienne  [brijen],  /.,  Brienne, 
town  in  northeast  of  France, 
on  the  Aube. 

briller  [brije],  to  shine. 

brin   [bre],  m.,  straw,   blade  of 


broder  [brode],  to  embroider. 

brosser  [brose],  to  brush. 

bruit  [brqi],  m.,  noise. 

bruler  [bryle],  to  burn. 

brun  [brden],  brown;  — e,  bru- 
nette. 

brusquement  [bryskama],  sud- 
denly. 


208 


VOCABULARY 


brutal  [larytal],  brutal. 
buisson  [bqiso],  ?«.,  bush. 
bureau  [byro],  m.,  flat-top  desk, 
writing  table;  office. 


fa  [sa],  contraction  of  cela. 
cafe  [kafe],  m.,  coffee, 
cage  [kais],  /.,  cage. 
Calais  [cale],  m.,  Calais. 
calme  [kalm],  m.,  calm,  quiet, 
calmer  [kalme],  to  calm, 
calotte  [kalot],  /.,  skull-cap. 
camarade   [kamarad],   m.,   com- 
rade. 
Cambrai   [kabre],   m.,  Cambrai, 

city  of  North  France, 
campagne   [kapaji],  /.,   country, 

not  city;  campaign. 
Canada  [kanada],  m.,  Canada, 
canard  [kana:r],  m.,  duck,  drake. 
cane  [kan], /.,  duck  {female). 
canif  [kanif],  m.,  penknife,  pocket 

knife. 
canton  [kato],  m.,  canton,  district, 
capable  [kapabl],  capable,  able, 
capitaine  [kapiten],  ?».,  captain, 
capitale     [kapital],    /.,     capital, 

seat  of  government. 
car  [kar],  for,  because,  since. 
cardinal  [kardinal],  ?«.,  cardinal. 
carre  [kare],  square,  rectangular. 
carte  [kart],  /.,  card,  map. 
cas  [kci],  case;  dans  le  (au)  — 

oh,  in  case;  au  —  que,  {ivith 

subj.),  in  case  that;  en  — ,  in 

case, 
cascade    [kaskad],    /.,    cascade, 

water-fall, 
casser  [kcise],  to  break, 
cause  [koiz],  /.,  cause;  a  —  de, 

because  of. 
cavalerie  [kavalri],  /.,  cavalry. 


ce  [so],  pron.,  this,  that,  it,  those; 
—  qui  (que),  what. 

ce,  cet,  cette,  ces  [sa,  set,  set,  se], 
adj.,  this,  that. 

ceci  [sasi],  tliis. 

ceder  [sede],  to  jdeld. 

cela  [s(3)la],  that. 

celebre  [selebr],  famous,  cele- 
brated. 

celebrer  [selebre],  to  celebrate. 

celui,  celle,  ceux,  celles  [salqi, 
sel,  S0,  sel],  this  or  that  (one); 
the  one,  he,  him. 

celui-ci  [salqisi],  this  one,  the  lat- 
ter. 

celui-la  [salqila],  that  one,  the 
former. 

cent  [sa],  a  hundred;  pour  — ,  per 
cent. 

centaine  [saten],  /.,  a  hundred. 

centimetre  [satimetr],  m.,  centi- 
meter, ^■'o  of  an  inch. 

cependant  [sapada],  however, 
nevertheless,  meanwhile,  yet. 

cerise  [sariiz],  /.,  cherry. 

certain  [serte],  certain;  — ement, 
certainly. 

Cervin  [serve],  m.,  le  mont  — ,  the 
Matterhorn. 

cesser  [sese],  to  cease,  stop. 
§  196a. 

chacim  [$akce],  pron.,  each,  each 
one,  every  one. 

chair  [^cir],  /.,  flesh. 

chaire    [Se:r],  /.,   pulpit,   official 

chaise  [Se:z],  /.,  chair. 

chalet  [Sale],  m.,  cottage. 

chaletir  [Saltt-:r],  /.,  heat. 

champ  [Sa],  m.,  field. 

chance  [Sa:s],  /.,  fortune,  good 
luck. 

chanceler  [Susie],  to  totter,  stag- 
ger. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


209 


changer  [Sage],  to  change. 

chanson  [$as5],  /.,  song. 

chanter  [Sate],  to  .sing,  chant, 
crow. 

chanteur,  -se  or  cantatrice  [$&- 
ttr:r,  -0:2,  katatris],  singer. 

chapeau  [Sapo],  m.,  hat,  bonnet. 

chapitre  [^apitr],  m.,  chapter. 

chaque  [^ak],  each,  every. 

charger  [^arse],  to  charge,  com- 
mission; charge  de,  full  of. 

Charles  [^arl],  m.,  Charles. 

channe  [^arm],  vi.,  charm. 

chasse  [^as],  /.,  hunting;  aller  a 
la  — ,  to  go  hunting. 

chasser  [^ase],  to  hunt,  drive 
away,  chase. 

chat  [Sa],  m.,  cat; tigre,  tiger- 
cat. 

chateau  [^ato],  m.,  castle. 

chatte  [Sat],/.,  cat  {female). 

chaud  [^o],  warm,  hot. 

chaudron  [^odro],  m.,  caldron. 

chaux  [5io],  /.,  lime. 

chef  [Sef],  TO.,  leader;  —  d'ceuvre 
[Ssdoeivr],  to.,  masterpiece;  — 
de  gare,  station-master. 

chemin  [S^me],  to.,  road;  —  de 
fer,  railroad. 

cheminer  [famine],  to  travel. 

cher,  chere  [Se:r],  dear. 

chercher  [Ser^e],  to  search,  look 
for,  seek,  get. 

cheval  [^aval],  to.,  horse. 

chevalier  [^avalje],  to.,  knight. 

cheveu  [^avo],  m.,  hair  (of  the 
head). 

chevre  [Se:vr],  /.,  goat  {fe- 
male). 

chez  [Se],  to,  at  or  in  the  house, 
shop  or  office  of  someone;  — • 
nous,  at  our  house;  —  M.  X, 
at  Mr.  X's;  —  le  dentiste,  at 
the  dentist's;  among,   in;  — 


les  Remains,  among  the  Ro- 
mans; —  elle,  in  her. 

chien  [Sje],  m.,  dog. 

chienne  [Sjen],  /.,  dog  {female). 

chose  [So:z],  /.,  thing. 

Chretien,  -ne  [kretje,  -tjen], 
Clmstian. 

ciel,  pi.  cieux  [sjel,  sjo],  to.,  sky, 
heaven. 

cigare  [sigan-],  ??i.,  cigar. 

cinq  [sfk],  five. 

cinquante  [seka:t],  fifty. 

cinquieme  [sekjem],  fifth. 

cirque  [sirk],  ?n.,  circus,  amphi- 
theater. 

citoyen  [sitwaje],  to.,  citizen. 

civil  [sivil],  civil. 

clair  [kle:r],  clear;  — ement,  clear- 

ly 

classe  [kla:s],/., class,  classroom, 
recitation,  lesson. 

Claude  Lorrain  [kloid  lore],  to., 
Claude  Lorrain. 

cle  or  clef  [kle],  /.,  key. 

clerge  [klerse],  m.,  clergy. 

clin  d'ceil  [kle  doeij],  yn.,  wink, 
twinkling. 

cocher  [ko^e],  to.,  cabman,  driver. 

coeur  [kce:r],  to.,  heart,  courage. 

cogner  [kope],  to  knock,  bump. 

coin  [kwe],  m.,  corner. 

Colbert  [kolbeir],  to.,  Colbert. 

colere  [kole:r],/.,  anger,  wrath. 

colonial  [kolonjal],  colonial. 

colonnade  [kolonad],  /.,  colon- 
nade, row  of  columns. 

combattre  [kobatr],  irr.,  see 
battre,  to  fight. 

combien  [kobje],  how  much, 
how  many;  —  de  temps,  how 
long. 

comedie  [komedi],  /.,  comedy. 

commandant  [komada],  7n.,  ma- 
jor. 


210 


VOCABTTLARY 


commandature  [komadatyir],  /., 
hoadquarters. 

commandement  [komadma],  //;., 
command. 

commander  [komade],  to  com- 
mand. 

comme  [kom],  as,  like. 

commencement  [komasmci],  in., 
beginning. 

commencer  [komase],  to  begin. 

commerce  [kamers],  m.,  com- 
merce. 

communion  [komynjo],  /.,  com- 
munion. 

compagne  [kopaji],/.,  companion 
(female),  wife. 

compagnie  [kSpajii],/.,  company. 

compagnon  [kopajio],  w.,  com- 
panion. 

Compiegne  [kopjeji],  /.,  Com- 
piegne. 

complet,  -ete  [kople,  -plet],  full, 
complete. 

compliment  [koplima],  m.,  com- 
pliment. 

compliquer  [koplike],  to  compli- 
cate. 

composer  [kopoze],  to  compose. 

comprendre  [k5pra:dr],  irr.,  see 
prendre,  to  understand,  com- 
prehend, include. 

comte,  -sse  [k5:t,  kotes],  m.,  /., 
count,  countess. 

compter  [kSte],  to  count,  reckon. 

concert  [k5s8:r],  m.,  concert. 

concevoir  [kosavwair],  irr.,  see 
recevoir,  to  conceive. 

condamner  [kodane],  to  condemn. 

condition  [kodisjS],  /.,  condition; 
a  —  que,  on  condition  that. 

conduire  [kodqiir],  irr.,  to  con- 
duct, take,  drive;  se  — ,  to  be- 
have. 

conduite  [kSdqit],  /.,  conduct. 


confiance  [k5fja:s],  /.,  confidence. 

confus  [kSfy],  confused. 

confusement  [kofyzema],  con- 
fusedly, dimly. 

conge  [kose],  m.,  leave,  holiday. 

conjonction  [kosoksjS],  /.,  con- 
junction. 

connaissance  [konesais],  /.,  ac- 
quaintance. 

coimaitre  [koneitr],  irr.,  to  know 
(by  perception),  recognize,  be 
acquainted  with. 

conquerir  [kokeriir],  irr.,  see  ac- 
querir,  to  conquer. 

conscience  [kosjais],  /.,  con- 
science; avec  — ,  conscien- 
tiously. 

conseil  [koseij],  m.,  counsel. 

conseiller  [koseje],  to  counsel, 
advise. 

consentir  [k5sati:r],  irr.,  see  dor- 
mir,  to  consent. 

consoler  [kosale],  to  console. 

constamment  [kostamaj,  con- 
stantly. 

constant  [kosta],  constant. 

constituant  [kostitqa],  constitu- 
tional. 

constitution  [k5stity.sj5],  /.,  con- 
stitution. 

construire  [kostrqiir],  irr.,  see 
conduire,  to  construct. 

consul  [kosyl],  m.,  consul. 

contempler  [kotuple],  to  contem- 
plate, watch. 

content  [koto],  happy,  glad,  satis- 
fied, pleased. 

conter  [kote],  to  tell,  relate. 

continuer  [kotinqe],  to  continue. 

contraire  [kotreir],  contrary,  op- 
posite. 

contre  [koitr],  against. 

controleur  [k5:troloe:r],  m.,  in- 
spector. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


211 


convenir  [k5vni:r],  to  agree. 

convention  [kSvasjo],  /.,  conven- 
tion. 

convoquer  [kovoke],  to  assemble, 
summon,  convoke. 

corde  [kord],  /.,  rope. 

Corneille  [k.3rne:j],  m.,  Corneille. 

corporation  [korporasjo], /.,  trade 
guikl,  trade  union. 

corps  [ko:r],  m.,  body. 

costume  [kostym],  ??;.,  costume. 

cote  [ko:t],  /.,  side,  coast,  ridge, 
rib,  shore. 

cote  [kote],  m.,  side,  direction;  a 

—  de,  beside;  de  — ,  sidewise, 
sidelong. 

coucher  [ku^e],  to  lay  flat,  put  to 
bed;  se  — ,  to  lie  down,  go  to 
bed. 

couleur  [kuloeir],  /.,  color. 

coup  [ku],  m.,  blow,  stroke,  move- 
ment; —  de  pied,  kick;  —  de 
tete,  wiKul  act ;  tout  a  — ,  sud- 
denly; —  de  vent,  gust  of  wind; 

—  d'etat,   revolutionary  act; 
tout  d'un  — ,  all  at  once. 

coupable  [kupabl],  guilty,  culpa- 
able. 

couper  [kupe],  to  cut. 

couple  [kupl],/.,  two;  m.,  a  pair, 
span,  yoke. 

cour  [ku:r],  /.,  court,  yard. 

courage  [kiu-a:3],  m.,  courage. 

courir  [kuriir],  irr.,  to  run;  — 
(apres)  des  nids,  to  hunt  birds' 
nests. 

couronne  [kuron],  /.,  crown. 

course  [kurs],  /.,  run,  race. 

cotu^:  [kuir],  short. 

courtois  [kurtwa],  courteous. 

court-vetu  [kurvety],  in  short 
clothes,  short-skirted. 

cousin  [kuze],  m.,  cousin  {mascu- 
line). 


cousine  [kuzin],  /.,  cousin  {femi- 
nine). 

couteau  [kuto],  m.,  knife. 

couter  [kute],  to  cost;  —  cher,  to 
cost  df ar. 

coutxime  [kutym],  /.,  custom. 

couvrir  [kuvriir],  irr.,  to  cover. 

craindre  [kre:dr],  iir.,  to  fear. 

craie  [kre],  /.,  chalk. 

crayon  [krejo],  m.,  pencil. 

createm-,  -trice  [kreatoc:r,  -tris], 
m.,  /.,  creator. 

Crecy  [kresi],  Crecy,  Cressy. 

creer  [kree],  to  create. 

creuser  [kroze],  to  hollow. 

creve-cceur  [krevkoeir],  m.,  agony, 
heart-breaking  experience. 

cri  [kri],  ?».,  cry,  shout,  scream. 

crier  [krie],  to  cry,  shout,  scream. 

crista!  [kristal],  m.,  crystal,  flint 
glass. 

croire  [krwair],  irr.,  to  believe. 

croix  [krwa],  /.,  cross. 

croquer  [krake],  to  crunch,  de- 
vour. 

cruaute  [kryote],  /.,  cruelty. 

cruel,  -le  [kryel],  cruel. 

cueillir  [koejiir],  irr.,  to  pick, 
gather. 

cuiller  [kqijeir],  /.,  spoon. 

ciu-e-dent  [kyrda],  m.,  tooth- 
pick. 

curieux,  -se  [kyrjo,  -joiz],  curi- 
ous. 

cuvette  [kyvet],  /.,  bowl,  basin. 


dahlia  [dalja],  7n.,  dahlia. 

d'aillevu-s  [dajoe:r],  moreover,  be- 
sides. 

dame  [dam],  /.,  lady. 

Danemark  [danmark],  m.,  Den- 
mark. 


212 


VOCABULARY 


dangereux,   -se   [dasare,  -roiz], 

dangerous. 
dans    [da],    in,    into,    inside   of, 

within. 
danser  [da.se],  to  dance, 
danseur,  -se  [dasoe:r,  -0:z],  m., 

/.,  dancer. 
date  [dat],  /.,  date, 
dauphin  [dofe],  m.,  dauphin,  heir 

apparent. 
davantage  [davatars],  more. 
de  [da],  of,  from,  with,  for,  to,  in, 

on,  by.     §  211. 
debarquer  [debarke],  to  land, 
debattre  [debatr],  irr.,  see  battre, 

to  discuss;  se  — ,  to  struggle. 
debout   [dabu],   erect,   standing; 

se  tenir  — ,  to  remain  standing. 
decembre  [desaibr],  ??i.,  Decem- 
ber. 
decidement  [desidema],  decided- 

ly. 

decider  [deside],  to  decide. 

decision  [desizj5],  /.,  decision. 

dedans  [dada],  inside,  within. 

dedaigner  [dedejie],  to  despise, 
disdain. 

dedaigneux  [dedejio],  scornful. 

deesse  [dees],  /.,  goddess. 

defendre  [defaidr],  to  forbid,  de- 
fend. 

defenseur  [defasoeir],  m.,  de- 
fender, attorney. 

defier  [defje],  to  defy;  se  —  de, 
to  distrust. 

defiler  [defile],  to  march. 

deji  [desa],  already. 

dejeuner  [desone],  m.,  breakfast. 

dejeuner  [desone],  to  breakfast, 
eat  breakfast. 

deli  [dala],  beyond. 

deliberer  [delibere],  to  deliberate. 

dellcieux,  -se  [delisjo,  -oiz],  de- 
licious, delightful. 


delivrer  [delivre],  to  deliver,  re- 
lieve, set  free. 

demain  [dame],  to-morrow. 

demander  [damade],  to  ask,  de- 
mand. 

demarche  [demar^],/.,  preceding, 
behavior. 

demi  [dami],  ?«.,  or  demie,  /.,  one 
half. 

demi  [dami],  half. 

demi-heure  [damioe:r],  /.,  half 
hour. 

dent  [da],  /.,  tooth;  croquer  a 
belles  — s,  to  eat  with  great 
relish. 

depecher  [depe^e],  to  hurry;  se 
— ,  to  make  haste. 

depens  [depa],  m.  pi.;  aux  —  de, 
at  the  expense  of. 

depenser  [depose],  to  spend. 

depuis  [dapqi],  since;  for;  —  dix 
minutes,  for  the  last  ten  min- 
utes;—  que,  conj.,  since. 

depute  [depj^te],  m.,  deputy, 
representative. 

dernier,  -ere  [dernje,  -je:r],  last. 

derriere  [derjeir],  behind. 

des  [de],  contraction  of  de  and 
les,  of  the,  some. 

desastre  [dezastr],  m.,  disaster. 

Descartes  [dekart],  m.,  Descartes, 

descendre  [desa:dr],  to  descend, 
go  down. 

deshonorer  [dezonare],  to  dis- 
honor. 

desir  [dezi:r],  7?i.,  desire. 

desirer  [dezire],  to  desire. 

desole  [dezole],  dreary,  desolate. 

desoler  [dezole],  to  ravage;  se  — , 
to  grieve,  be  in  deep  sorrow. 

dessin  [dese],  m.,  drawing,  plan. 

dessiner  [desine],  to  draw,  design. 

dessous  [dasu],  under,  beneath; 
au  —  de,  below. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


213 


dessus  [cbsy],  on,  over;  au  —  de, 
above. 

detendre  [detaidr],  to  relax. 

determination  [determinasjo],  /., 
decision,  determination. 

determiner  [determine],  to  de- 
termine. 

detester  [deteste],  to  hate,  de- 
test. 

detniire  [detrqiir],  irr.,  see  con- 
duire,  to  destroy. 

deux  [do],  two. 

deuxieme  [dozjem],  second. 

devant  [dava],  m.,  front. 

devant  [dava],  before,  in  front  of. 

devenir  [davaniir],  irr.,  see  tenir, 
to  become,  grow. 

deviner  [dovine],  to  guess. 

devoir  [d9^^\'a:r],  m.,  duty,  task, 
exercise;  rendre  ses  — s,  to 
pay  one's  respects. 

devoir  [davwair],  irr.,  to  owe,  to 
be  (intending  or  under  obliga- 
tion to);  must;  ought,  have  to. 

dieu  [djo],  m.,  god. 

different  [difera],  different. 

difficile  [difisil],  hard,  difficult. 

difficulte  [difikylte],  /.,  difficulty. 

digne  [diji],  worthy. 

dimanche  [dima:^],  m.,  Sunday. 

diminuer  [diminqe],  to  diminish, 
grow  smaller. 

diner  [dine],  m.,  dinner. 

diner  [dine],  to  dine. 

dire  [di:r],  irr.,  to  say,  tell;  vou- 

loir  — ,  to  mean;  c'est-a , 

that  is  (to  say) ;  on  dit,  people 
say,  it  is  said. 

directeur,  -trice  [direktoeir,  -tris], 
m.,  /.,  director. 

direction  [direksjS],  /.,  direction. 

discipline  [disiplin],  /.,  discipline. 

discuter  [diskyte],  to  discuss, 
argue. 


disparaitre  [disparritr],  irr.,  see 
connaitre,  to  disappear. 

disposer  [dispoze],  to  dispose. 

distance  [distais],  /.,  distance. 

distinctement  [distektma],  dis- 
tinctly. 

distinguer  [distege],  to  distin- 
guish, perceive. 

distribution  [distribysjo],  /.,  dis- 
tribution, presentation. 

dites  [dit],  see  dire. 

divers  [diveir],  various,  diverse. 

dix  [dis],  ten. 

dixieme  [dizjem],  tenth. 

dizaine  [dizen],  ten,  half  score. 

docile  [dosil],  obedient;  — ment, 
obediently. 

doigt  [dwa],  to.,  finger. 

dois  [dwa],  see  devoir. 

dollar  [dola:r],  m.,  dollar. 

domestique  [domestik],  m.,  /., 
servant,  domestic. 

dominer  [domine],  to  domi- 
nate. 

done  [do(k)],  then,  so. 

donner  [done],  to  give. 

dont  [do],  of  which,  of  whom, 
whose,  from  which,  with 
which. 

dormir  [dormi:r],  irr.,  to  sleep. 

dot  [dot],  /.,  dowTy. 

doucement  [dusma],  gently. 

douceur  [dusoeir],  /.,  gentleness, 
peacefulness. 

doute  [dut],  TO.,  doubt;  sans  — , 
undoubtedly,  probably. 

douter  [dute],  to  doubt. 

doux,  douce  [du,  dus],  sweet, 
gentle. 

douzaine  [duzen],/.,  dozen,  group 
of  twelve. 

douze  [du:z],  twelve. 

drap  [dra],  m.,  cloth. 

drapeau  [drapo],  to.,  flag. 


214 


VOCABULARY 


dresser  [drese],  to  set  up;  se  — , 

to  rise,  straighten  up. 
droit   [drwa],   right,   straight;   a 

— e,    to    the    right;    tout   — , 

straight  ahead;  m.  pi.,  rights, 

obligations,  taxes;  etre  en  — , 

to  have  a  right. 
drole  [droil],  droll,  queer,  funny, 

comical. 
du  [dy],  contraction  of  de  and  le, 

of  the,  some. 
due  [dyk],  m.,  duke, 
duchesse  [dy^es],  /.,  duchess. 
duquel  [dykel],  contraction  of  de 

and  lequel. 
dur  [dy:r],  hard,  severe, 
duffer  [dyre],  to  last,  endure. 


E 

eau  [o],  /.,  water. 

eboiuiffe  [eburife],  rough,  shaggy. 

echafaud  [e^afo],  m.,  scaffold. 

echapper  [e^ape],  to  escape. 

eclatant  [eklata],  striking,  shi- 
ning. 

eclater  [eklate],  to  burst  forth. 

ecole  [ekol],  /.,  school;  a  1' — ,  to 
or  at  school. 

ecolier  [ekolje],  m.,  scholar. 

ecouter  [ekute],  to  listen,  listen 
to  {with  direct  object). 

ecraser  [ekraze],  to  crush. 

ecrire  [ekri:r],  irr.,  to  wTite. 

ecriture  [ekrityir],  /.,  writing. 

ecrivaln  [ekrive],  ?«.,  author, 
writer. 

Edouard  [edwair],  m.,  Edward. 

education  [edykasjo],  /.,  educa- 
tion. 

effacer  [efase],  to  efface,  erase. 

effort  [efoir],  m.,  effort. 

affrayer  [efreje],  to  frighten; 
effrayant,  frightful. 


egal  [egal],  equal;  — ement, 
equally. 

egalite  [egalite],  /.,  equality. 

egayer  [egeje],  to  enliven, 
brighten. 

eglise  [egliiz],  /.,  church;  a  1' — , 
to  or  at  church. 

egoiste  [egoist],  selfish. 

eh  bien  [e  bje],  well! 

Elbe  [elb],  /.,  Elba,  island  be- 
tween Corsica  and  Italy. 

election  [eleksjS], /.,  election. 

eleve  [ele:v],  m.,f.,  pupil. 

elever  [elve],  to  raise,  produce. 

elire  [eliir],  irr.,  see  lire,  to  elect, 
choose. 

Elisabeth  [elizabet],/.,  Elizabeth. 

elle,  [el],  she,  it,  her. 

eloquence  [elokdis],/.,  eloquence. 

embarrasser  [abarase],  to  em- 
barrass. 

embrouiller  [abruje],  to  tangle; 
s' — ,  to  become  confiLsed. 

emmener  [amne],  to  take  away. 

emotion  [emosjo],  /.,  emotion. 

emouvoir  [emu\'wa:r],  irr.,  see 
mouvoir,  to  affect,  excite. 

emparer  (s')  [sapare],  to  seize, 
take  possession  of. 

empecher  [ape^e],  to  prevent. 

empereur  [ap9rcE:r],  m.,  em- 
peror. 

empire  [api:r],  m.,  empire. 

employer  [ciplwaje],  to  employ. 

emporter  [dporte],  to  carry  off, 
overbalance. 

en  [a],  adv.  or  pron.,  of  it,  of 
them;  some,  any;  from  them. 

en  [a],  in,  into;  of;  as  a,  like  a; 
urith  pres.  part.,  while,  on,  by; 
—  haut,  up-stairs;  —  bas, 
down-stairs. 

enchantement  [a^atma],  7n.,  en- 
chantment, magic. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


215 


enchanteur,  -eresse  [aSatoeir, 
-ares],  m.,  /.,  enchanter,  en- 
chantress. 

encore  [akoir],  yet,  still,  more; 
—  deux  jours,  two  days  more. 

encourager  [akurase],  to  encour- 
age. 

encre  [a:kr],  /.,  ink. 

encrier  [akrje],  m.,  ink-well. 

endroit  [cldrwa],  m.,  place,  spot. 

enfance  [afa:s],  /.,  childhood. 

enfant  [afa],  m.,  /.,  child. 

enfin  [ofe],  at  last,  finally. 

enfuir  (s')  [safqi:r],  irr.,  see  fuir, 
to  flee,  rmi  away. 

enguirlander  [cigirlade],  to  en- 
wreathe,  twine  about. 

enhardir  (s')  [saardiir],  to  take 
coiu-age,  grow  bold. 

enjamber  [asabe],  to  step  or 
straddle  over. 

ennemi  [enmi],  m.,  enemy. 

ennuyeux  [anqijo],  wearisome. 

enorme  [enorm],  enormous,  vast. 

enricher  [ari^e],  to  enrich. 

enseigner  [asejie],  to  teach. 

ensemble  [asaibl],  together. 

entendre  [ata:dr],  to  hear,  under- 
stand; s' — ,  to  agree. 

entier  [atje],  m.,  whole,  unit;  adj., 
whole,  entire,  all. 

entre  [a:tr],  between. 

entree  [atre],  /.,  entrance. 

entrer  [atre],  to  enter;  —  dans 
le  jardin,  to  enter  the  garden. 

entr'ouvert  [atruveir],  half-open. 

envahir  [avaiir],  to  invade. 

envelopper  [avbpe],  to  envelop, 
take  in. 

envers  [ave:r],  toward. 

envie  [dvi],  /.,  desire,  envy; 
avoir  — ,  to  feel  like. 

envieux,  -se  [avjo,  -vjoiz],  en- 
vious. 


envoyer  [avwaje],  irr.,  to  send. 

epais,  -se  [epe,  -pes],  thick. 

epaule  [epol],  /.,  shoulder;  aux 
larges  — s,  broad-shouldered. 

epeler  [eple],  to  spell. 

epouvantable  [epuvatabl],  fright- 
ful. 

epoux  [epu],  m.,  husband. 

epouse  [epu:z],  /.,  spouse,  wife. 

epreuve  [eproeiv],  /.,  proof;  k 
toute  — ,  proof  against  every- 
thing. 

epuisement  [epqizma],  m.,  ex- 
haustion. 

epuiser  [epqize],  to  exhaust. 

equilibre  [ekihbr],  w.,  equilib- 
rium, balance. 

errer  [ere],  to  wander. 

escabeau  [eskabo],  to.,  stool. 

escalier  [eskalje],  m.,  staircase, 
flight  of  .stairs. 

esclave  [esklaiv],  slave. 

Espagne  [espaji],  /.,  Spain. 

esperance  [esperais],  /.,  hope. 

esperer  [espere],  to  hope. 

essayer  [eseje],  to  try. 

essouffler  [esufle],  to  put  out  of 
breath;  to  wind;  s' — ,  to  lose 
one's  breath. 

essuyer  [esqije],  to  wipe. 

est  [e],  see  etre. 

estimer  [estime],  to  esteem. 

et  [e],  and;  —  ...  — ,  both  .  .  . 
and. 

etat  [eta],  m.,  state,  trade;  Etats- 
Unis  [etazyni].  United  States; 
Etats  generaux,  States  Gen- 
eral, Parliament. 

etau  [eto],  m.,  vise. 

ete  [ete],  see  etre. 

ete  [ete],  m.,  summer. 

etendre  [eta:dr],to  extend,  stretch 
out. 

etirer  (s')  [satire],  to  stretch. 


216 


VOCABULARY 


etoffe  [etof],  /.,  cloth,  goods. 

etoile  [etwal],  /.,  star. 

etonnement  [etonmd],  m.,  as- 
tonishment, surprise. 

etonner  [etone],  to  astonish,  sur- 
prise; s' — ,  to  wonder. 

etouffer  [etufe],  to  choke,  stifle, 
smother. 

etranger,  -ere  [etrcise,  -5E:r], 
stranger,  foreigner. 

etre  [c:trj,  m.,  being. 

etre  [8:tr],  irr.,  to  be;  as  aux- 
iliary in  active  voice,  to  have; 
—  a,  to  belong  to. 

etudier  [etydje],  to  study. 

eu  [y],  see  avoir. 

Europe  [oerop],  /.,  Europe. 

eux  [o],  pi.  of  lui,  they,  them. 

eveiller  [eveje],  to  waken,  rouse, 
wake  up. 

eveque  [eve:k],  m.,  bishop. 

evidemment  [evidama],  evident- 

ly- 

evident  [evida],  evident. 

eviter  [evite],  to  avoid. 

exact  [egza(kt)],  exact,  on  time. 

examiner  [egzamine],  to  exam- 
ine. 

excuser  [ekskyze],  to  excuse,  par- 
don. 

execrer  [egzekre],  to  execrate. 

executer  [egzekyte],  to  execute. 

executeuLT,  -trice  [egzekytoe:r, 
-tris],  executor. 

exemple  [egzapl],  m.,  copy,  ex- 
ample; par  — ,  for  instance. 

exercice  [egzersis],  m.,  exercise; 
faire  1' —  (nulitaire),  to  drill. 

exister  [cgziste],  to  exist. 

explication  [eksplikasjo],  /.,  ex- 
planation. 

expliquer  [eksplike],  to  explain. 

exploiter  [eksplwate],  to  exploit, 
work,  cheat. 


exposer  [ekspose],  to  expose. 

expres,  -presse  [ekspre,  -pres], 
express;  adv.,  purposely. 

expression  [ekspresjo],  /.,  ex- 
pression. 

exprimer  [eksprime],  to  express. 

extraordineiire  [ekstr(a)ordine:r], 
extraordinary. 

extremite  [ekstremite],  /.,  e.x- 
tremity,  end. 


fable  [fnbl],  /.,  fable. 

fabrique  [fabrik],/.,  mill,  factory; 
cloth,  fabric. 

fabriquer  [fabrike],  to  make, 
manufacture. 

face  [fas],  /.,  face,  front;  en  — 
de,  in  front  of,  opposite. 

facher  (se)  [sa  fci^e],  to  get  angry. 

facheux,  -se  [fa^o,  0:z],  vexa- 
tious, unfortunate. 

facile  [fasil],  easy. 

fafon  [faso],  /.,  waj^,  manner;  de 

—  que,  so  that. 

facteiu-   [faktccir],   m.,  postman, 

letter-carrier. 
faible  [febl],  weak. 
faim  [fe],  /.,  hunger;  avoir  — ,  to 

be  hungry. 
faire    [fe:r],    irr.,    to    do,   make, 

cause;  say; ,  to  have  done; 

—  attention,  to  pay  attention; 

—  froid,  to  be  cold  (imper- 
sonal); —  ime  question,  to  ask 
a  question;  —  beau  (temps), 
to  be  fine  (weather);  il  fait 
bon,  it  is  pleasant ;  si  fait,  yes 
indeed;  se  — ,  to  be;  to  take 
place,  occur,  happen;  —  une 
classe,  to  hear  a  lesson,  con- 
duct a  recitation;  —  comme, 
to  seem  like,  act  like. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


217 


falloir  [falwair],  irr.  impersonal, 

to  be  necessary,  have  to;  must; 

il  me  faut,  I  must,  I  need;  il 

lui  faudra,  he  will  have  to;  il 

fallait  voir,  you  ought  to  have 

seen;  il  ne  faut  pas,  one  must 

not. 
falloir   (s'en)    [safalwair],   to  be 

wanting;  peu  s'en  faut,  it  lacks 

but  little, 
fameux,    -se    [fame,    -oiz],    fa- 
mous. 
familiar  [familje],  familiar, 
famille  [fami:j], /.,  family;  en  — , 

informally,  with  no  strangers 

present. 
fanfare    [fcifair],   /.,    flourish    of 

trumpets. 
fatigue  [fatigo],  weary. 
fatiguer  [fatige],  to  weary,  tire; 

se  — ,  to  grow  weary. 
faufiler  [fofile],  to  slip  in. 
faute  [fo:t],  /.,  fault,  mistake. 
fautif  [fotif],  at  fault,  to  blame. 
faux,  — sse   [fo,   fo:s],  false;  — 

marchepied,  foot-rope. 
faux  [fo],  /.,  scythe. 
favori,  -te  [favori,  -rit],  favorite. 
feindre  [fe:dr],  irr.,  see  craindre, 

to  feign,  pretend. 
femme  [fam],  /.,  wife,  woman. 
fenetre  [faneitr],  /.,  window. 
feodal  [feodal],  feudal. 
fer  [fe:r],  m.,  iron;  chemin  de  — ; 

railroad. 
feral  [fare],  see  faire. 
Ferdinand  le  Catholique  [ferdina 

lo  katolik],  Ferdinand,  king  of 

Aragon  (1452-1516). 
ferme  [ferme],  closed. 
fermer  [ferme],  to  close,  shut. 
feu  [fo],  m.,  fire. 
feu  [fo],  late,  recent;  —  la  reine, 

or  la  — e  reine,  the  late  queen. 


feuille  [foe:j],  /.,  leaf. 

fevrier  [fevri(j)e],  m.,  February. 

fier,  -ere  [fjeir],  proud. 

figure  [figy:r],  /.,  face,  figure. 

fil  [fil],  m.,  tliread. 

filature  [filaty:r],  /.,  (spinning) 
mill. 

fille  [fi:j],  /.,  girl,  daughter. 

fils  [fis],  m.,  son. 

fin  [ft],  /.,  end. 

fin,  -e  [fg,  fin],  fine. 

finir  [fini:r],  to  fini.sh. 

fis  [fi],  see  faire. 

fixer  [fiksc],  to  fix,  settle;  look 
steailily  at,  stare  at. 

fiacon  [flako],  m.,  bottle. 

fiatteur,  -se  [flatoeir,  oiz],  flatter- 
ing. 

fieur  [floeir],  /.,  flower. 

fieurir  [AcltIu-],  to  flourish,  grow 
(well) ;  fieuri,  full  of  flowers. 

flotter  [flote],  to  float. 

foi  [fwa],  /.,  faith,  word. 

fois  [fwa],  /.,  time;  une  — ,  deux 
— -,  once,  twice. 

fence  [fose],  dark. 

fond  [fo],  m.,  back,  bottom,  rear. 

font  [f5],  see  faire. 

fontaine  [foten],  /.,  fountain, 
spring. 

forfat  [forsa],  m.,  convict;  —  a 
vie,  convict  sentenced  for  life. 

force  [fors],  /.,  strength,  force. 

forcer  [forse],  to  force,  compel. 

foret  [fore],  /.,  forest. 

Forez  [forez],  in.,  Forez,  old 
French  province  near  Lyons. 

forgeron  [forsoro],  to.,  black- 
smith. 

forme  [form],  /.,  form,  formality. 

former  [forme],  to  form. 

fort  [fo:r],  strong. 

fort  [fo:r],  adv.,  very. 

fou,  fol,  folle  [fu,  fol],  crazy. 


218 


VOCABULARY 


foixle    [fill],   /.,    crowd,    throng, 

mob. 
fourmi  [furmi],  /.,  ant. 
fraicheur   [freSoeir],  /.,  coolness, 

freshness. 
frais  [fre],  m.  -pi.,  expenses,  cost. 
frais,   fraiche   [fre,   fre:^],   fresh, 

cool, 
f raise  [fre:z],  /.,  strawberry. 
franc    [fra],    m.,    franc    (  =  19.3 

cents). 
franc,  -he  [fra,  fra:;ji],  frank,  hon- 
est; Franche-Comte,  province 

of     Eastern     France,     "Free 

County." 
franc,  franque  [fra,  fra:k],  Frank- 

ish. 
Frangais  [frass],  m.,  Frenchman, 
frangais  [frase],  French. 
France  [fra:s], /.,  France. 
Franfois  [fraswa],  m.,  Francis. 
Frantz  [frants],  ?«.,  Frantz. 
f rapper  [frape],  to  strike. 
frayeur  [frejceir],  /.,  fear,  fright, 

terror. 
frere  [freir],  m.,  brother. 
friser  [frize],  to  cm-1. 
froid  [frwa],  cold, 
fromage  [froma:^],  m.,  cheese. 
fronde     [fr5:d],     /.,      sling;     la 

Fronde,     conspiracy     against 

Mazarin. 
frotter  [frote],  to  rub. 
fruit  [frqi],  m.,  fruit. 
fuir  [ft[i:r],  irr.,  to  flee,  fly. 
fumer  [fjane],  to  smoke. 
fxmebre  [fjaieibr],  funeral. 
furieiix,  -se  [fjTJo,  -0:z],  fiu-ious. 
fusil  [fyzi],  m.,  gmi. 
fusilier  [fyzije],  to  shoot, 
fut  [fy],  see  etre;  il  s'en  — ,  he 

went  oflf. 
future  [fytyrr],  m.,  future  (tense); 

— ,  adj.,  future. 


gabier  [gabje],  m.,  topman. 

gagner  [gajie],  to  gain,  earn,  win, 
reach. 

gai  [ge],  gay,  merry. 

gaiement  or  gaiment  [gema], 
gaily. 

galamment  [galama],  gallantly. 

galant  [gala],  gallant. 

galop  [galo],  gallop. 

gamin  [game],  vi.,  street  ur- 
chin. 

gant  [ga],  m.,  glove. 

garfon  [garso],  m.,  boy,  waiter, 
bachelor. 

garde  [gard],  m.,  /.,  guard. 

garde  [gard],/.,  guard; prendre — ■ 
(de),  to  take  care  (not  to); 
n' avoir  —  de,  to  be  careful  not 
to. 

garder  [garde],  to  keep,  guard, 
protect,  retain. 

gare  [ga:r],  /.,  depot,  railway  sta- 
tion (terminal);  — !  beware! 

gateau  [goto],  m.,  cake. 

gauche  [goi^],  left;  a  — ,  to  the 
left;  — ment,  awkwardly. 

Gaulois  [golwa],  m.,  Gaul;  adj., 
Gallic. 

geant  [5eu],  m.,  giant. 

geler  [sale],  to  freeze. 

gener  [sene],  to  impede,  em- 
barrass, vex,  disturb;  se  — , 
to  hesitate. 

general  [seneral],  m.,  general; 
adj.,  general. 

genereux,  -se  [senero,  -roiz], 
generous. 

genie  [seni],  m.,  genius. 

genou  [5onu],  m.,  knee;  {pi.  for- 
merly — x). 

gens  [3a],  pi.,  people,  men. 
§  126,  7. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


219 


gentil,  -lie  [sati,  -tiij],  pretty, 
pleasing,  attractive. 

gUssade  [glisad],  /.,  slide. 

glisser  [glise],  to  glide. 

gloire  [glwair],  /.,  glor3\ 

glorieux,  -se  [gbrjo,  -rJ0!z], 
glorious. 

gouflfre  [gufr],  /«.,  gulf,  abyss. 

gouter  [gate],  to  taste,  enjoy. 

goutte  [gut],  /.,  drop. 

gouvemement  [guvernama],  m., 
government. 

gouvemer  [guverne],  to  govern. 

gouvemeur  [guvernoeir],  m.,  gov- 
ernor. 

grace  [gra:s],  /.,  favor,  mercy, 
pardon,  thanks. 

grade  [grad],  ni.,  grade,  rank. 

grammaire  [grameir],  /.,  gram- 
mar. 

grand  [gra],  large,  tall;  les  — s, 
the  great;  — ement,  greatly. 

grandeur  [gradoeir],  /.,  greatness, 
grandeur. 

gras,  -se  [gra,  gras],  fat,  rich. 

grasseyer  [graseje],  to  speak  with 
uvular  r,  "speak  thick." 

grave  [graiv],  grave,  serious. 

gravite  [gravite],  /.,  seriousness. 

gre  [gre],  m.,  good-will,  gratitude; 
savoir  — ,  to  be  grateful. 

grec,  — que  [gxek],  Greek. 

greement  [grema],  m.,  rigging. 

grele  [grcil],  slight,  scanty. 

grenouille  [granuij],  /.,  frog. 

grief  [grief],  m.,  injury,  cause  of 
complaint. 

grillage  [grija:3],  m.,  grating;  — 
aux  affiches,  bulletin-board 
(covered  by  a  grating). 

grimper  [grepe],  to  climb. 

grincement  [gresmu],  m.,  scra- 
ping, scratching. 

gris  [gri],  gray. 


grogner  [grajie],  to  growl. 

gronder  [grade],  to  scold,  grumble. 

gros,  -se  [gro,  gro:s],  big,  bulky, 
large. 

guere  [ge:r];  ne  — ,  not  much, 
but  little;  hardly. 

guerre  [ge:r],  /.,  war. 

guerrier'[gerje],  tji.,  warrior,  sol- 
dier. 

guetter  [gete],  to  watch  for,  lie  in 
wait  for. 

guide  [gid],  m.,  guide. 

Guillaiune  [gijomi],  m.,  William. 

Guise  [gqiiz],  Guise,  famous 
noble  family. 

guitare  [gita:r],  /.,  guitar. 


(h  aspirate  is  indicated  thus:  'h) 

habile  [abil],  clever,  skilful. 
habiller  [abije],  to  dress;  s' — -,  to 

dress  oneself. 
habit  [abi],  m.,  coat;  pi.,  clothes. 
habitude    [abityd],   /.,    custom; 

d' — -,  customarily. 
habituer  [abitqe],  to  accustom. 
'haine  (en],  /.,  hatred. 
'hair  [ai:r],  irr.,  to  hate. 
'haleter  [alte],  to  pant. 
'halte  [alt],/.,  halt. 
'hanneton     [anto],     m.,     beetle, 

June-bug. 
'harceler  [arsale],  to  harass, 
'hate  [a:t],  /.,  haste. 
'hater  [a:te],  to  hasten;  se  — ,  to 

hurry,  make  haste. 
'Hauser  [oze:r],  Hauser. 
'haut  [o],   high;  loud;  m.,   top, 

height;  en  — ,  up-stairs;  adv., 

— ,  loud(ly). 
'hauteiu-  [otoe:r],  /.,  height. 
hebreu  [ebro],  Hebrew, 
'heler  [ele],  to  hail,  call. 


220 


VOCABULARY 


Henri  [ari],  m.,  Henry. 

Henriette  [ariet],  /.,  Henrietta. 

heriter  [erite],  to  inherit. 

heritier  [eritje],  m.,  heir. 

'heros  [ero],  m.,  hero. 

heroine  [eroin],  /.,  heroine. 

heroiquement  [eroikma],  heroic- 
ally. 

hesitation  [ezitasjo],  /.,  hesita- 
tion. 

hesiter  [ezite],  to  hesitate. 

heure  [oe:r],  /.,  hour;  quelle  — 
est-il,  what  time  is  it;  de 
bonne  — ,  early;  a  neuf  — s, 
at  nine  o'clock;  a  la  bonne  — ! 
good!  all  right!;  a  1' — ,  on 
time. 

henreusement  [rerozma],  hap- 
pily, fortunately. 

heureux,  -se  [a>r0,  -roiz],  happy, 
fortunate. 

hier  [je:r],  yesterday. 

histoire  [istwair],  /.,  history, 
story. 

historique  [istorik],  historical. 

hiver  [ive:r],  m.,  winter. 

'Hollande  [ola:d],  /.,  Holland. 

honune  [om],  m.,  man. 

honneur  [onoeir],  m.,  honor. 

honorer  [onore],  to  honor. 

'honte  [5:t],  /.,  shame. 

'honteux,  -se  [oto,  -torz],  shame- 
ful; ashamed. 

horloge  [orb:3],  /.,  clock. 

horreur  [oroeir],  /.,  horror. 

'hors  [a:r],  outside,  beyond. 

'houblon  [ublo],  m.,  hop-vine. 

'houpette  [upct],  /.,  tuft. 

'hint  [qit],  eight;  —  jours,  a 
week. 

'huitaine  [qiten],  group  of  eight, 
some  eight. 

humanite  [ymanite],  /.,  human- 
ity. 


humilier  [ymilje],  to  humiliate, 
humeur  [yma-ir],  /.,  humor. 

I 
ici  [isi],  here. 
idee  [ide],  /.,  idea. 
idiot  [idjo,-jot],  idiotic,  imbecile. 
ignorer  [ijiore],  to  be  ignorant, 

not  to  know. 
il  [il],  he,  it,  there. 
lie  [il],  /.,  island. 
il  y  a  [ilja],  there  is,  there  are; 

ago;  for. 
image  [imais],  /.,  image,  picture. 
imiter  [imite],  to  imitate. 
immense  [ima:s],  immense. 
immobile     [imobil],    motionless, 

still. 
impatience   [epasjais],  /.,   impa- 
tience. 
imperatrice    [eperatris],  /.,    em- 
press. 
impetueux,    -se    [epetqo,    -0iz], 

impetuous. 
impoli  [epoli],  impolite,  rude, 
importance  [eportdis],  /.,  impor- 
tance. 
importer  [eporte],  to  be  impor- 
tant;  n'importe!  no  matter!; 
qu'importe?  what  matters  it? 
impossible  [eposibl],  impossible, 
impot  [epo],  m.,  tax. 
imprimer  [eprime],  to  print. 
incendie  [esadi],  w.,  fire,  confla- 
gration. 
incertitude  [esertityd],  /.,  uncer- 
tainty. 
inconnu  [ekony],  unknown, 
individu  [edividu],  m.,  individual, 
individuellement    [edividijelma], 

individually. 
Industrie  [edystri],  /.,  industry, 

manufacturing. 
infini  [efini],  infinite. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


221 


infiniment  [efinima],  infinitely. 

infranchissable  [efraSisabl],  im- 
passable. 

inquiet,  -ete  [ekje,  -kjet],  un- 
easy. 

inquieter  (s')  [sekjete],  to  be  anx- 
ious, worry. 

inspecteur,  -trice  [espektoeir, 
-tris],  tn.,  /.,  inspector. 

inspection  [espeksjo],  /.,  inspec- 
tion. 

inspirer  [espire],  to  inspire. 

installer  [estale],  to  establish. 

Institut  [estity],  m.,  Institute. 

instruction  [estryksjo],  /.,  in- 
struction. 

instruit  [estrqi],  educated. 

insurrection  [esyreksjo],/.,  insur- 
rection. 

intelligence  [etelisais],  /.,  intelli- 
gence. 

intelligent  [et8li3a],  intelligent. 

intention  [etasjo],  /.,  intention; 
avoir  1' — ,  to  intend. 

interessant  [eteresa],  interesting. 

interesser  [eterese],  to  interest. 

interjection  [eterseksjo],  /.,  in- 
terjection. 

interroger  [etero3e],  to  question. 

inventevir,  -trice  [evatoe:r],  in- 
ventor. 

inviter  [evite],  to  invite. 

invoquer  [evoke],  to  invoke,  call 
upon. 

irai  [ire],  see  aller. 

irriter  [irite],  to  vex. 

Isabelle  [izabel],  /.,  Isabel. 

Italie  [itali],  /.,  Italy. 

ivoire  [ivwa:r],  m.,  ivory. 


jabot  [3abo],  m.,  frill. 
jadis  [5adi(s)],  formerly. 


jaloux,  -se  [3alu,  -lu:z],  jealous. 
jamais  [3ame],  ever;  ne  .  .  .  — , 

never;  — !  never! 
jambe  [3a:b],  /.,  leg. 
Janvier  [scivje],  m.,  January. 
Japon  [5ap5],  m.,  Japan. 
jappement  [sapma],  yelps,  barks. 
japper  [sape],  to  bark,  yelp, 
jar  din  [3arde],  m.,  garden, 
jatte  [3at],  /.,  jar,  bowl, 
jaune  [50:11],  yellow, 
jaunir  [3oni!r],  to  grow  yellow, 
je  [39],  I- 
Jean  [3a],  John. 
Jeanne  [5a:n],  /.,  Joan;  — d'Arc 

[dark],  Joan  of  Arc. 
Jeter  [sate],  to  throw,  utter;  se 

— ,  to  rush,  spring;  —  un  cri, 

to  cry  out,  shout,  scream, 
jeu  [30],  m.,  game. 
jeudi  [30di],  m.,  Thursday. 
jeune  [soen],  young. 
joie  [3wa],/.,  joy;  avec— ,  gladly. 
joindre  [3\ve:dr],  irr.,  see  craindre, 

to  join. 
joli  [3oli],  pretty. 
joliment  [3olima],  finely,  prettily, 

very. 
jonquille  [35ki:j],/.,  jonquil;  adj., 

light  yellow. 
jouer  [swe],  to  play; —  aux  billes, 

to  play  marbles ;  —  du  violon, 

to  play  the  violin. 
jouet  [3 we],  m.,  plaything,  toy. 
joxiir  [3wi:r];  —  de,  to  enjoy. 
jovir  [3U!r],  m.,  day,  light;  tons 

les  — s,  every  day. 
journal  [3urnal],  vi.,  newspaper, 
journee  [3urne],  /.,  day. 
joyau  [3wajo],  m.,  jewel. 
joyeusement  [3waJ0zma],  gladly, 

happily. 
joyeux,-se[3waJ0,  -J0:z],  joyous, 

happy. 


222 


VOCABULARY 


juger  [syse],  to  judge,  try. 

juillet  [5qije],  ?n.,  July. 

juin  [5qe],  m.,  June. 

Jules  [syl],  m.,  Julius. 

jiuneau,    -melle    [symo,    -mel], 

twin. 
jure  [syre],  m.,  judge,  juryman. 
jurer  [5yre],  to  swear. 
jusqu'a    [3yska]    or    jusques    a, 

[syskza],  until,  as  far  as. 
juste  [3yst],  right,  just;  — ment, 

exactly,  precisely. 
justice  bystis],  /.,  law,  justice. 


kilo     [kilo]  =  kilogramme     [kilo- 
gram], m.,  kilogram  =  2.2  lbs. 


la  [la],  the;  it,  her. 

la  [la],  there;  ce  sont  — ,  those 
are. 

la-bas  [laba],  yonder. 

labeur  [laboe:r],  m.,  toil,  labor. 

laborieux,  -se  []ab3rJ0,  -0:z],  la- 
borious, difficult. 

lac  [lak],  m.,  lake. 

lacher  [la^e],  to  let  go  of,  drop, 
release. 

La  Fontaine  [lafSten],  m.,  La 
Fontaine. 

laid  [Ic],  homely. 

laisser  [lese],  to  let,  leave,  al- 
low; —  voir,  to  show,  displaj'. 

lait  [Ic],  m.,  milk. 

laiterie  [Ictri],  /.,  dairy. 

langage  [lagais],  m.,  speech,  lan- 
guage. 

langue  [la:g], /.,  tongue,  language. 

large  [lar5],  broad,  wide. 

largeur  [larstt'ir],  /.,  width, 
breadth. 


larmoyer  [larmwaje],  to  whine, 
snivel,  shed  tears. 

las,  -se  [la,  las],  weary. 

layer  [lave],  to  wash. 

le,  la,  r,  las  [b,  la,  1,  le], 
the. 

le,  la,  r,  les  [b,  la,  1,  le],  pron., 
him,  her,  it;  them;  qui  le  dit, 
who  says  so. 

lefon  [bso],  /.,  lesson. 

legal  [legal],  legal. 

leger  [lese],  light,  slight;  legere- 
ment,  slightly. 

legislatif,  -ve  [lesislatif,  -tiv], 
legislative. 

Leipzig  [kpsik],  Leipzig,  city  of 
Saxony. 

lendemain  [ladme],  m.,  morrow, 
next  day. 

lent  [la],  slow. 

lentement  [Icitma],  slowly. 

lequel,  laquelle,  lesquels,  les- 
quelles  [lokel,  lakel,  lekel], 
who,  whom,  which. 

lestement  [lestma],  nimbly, 
briskly. 

Lesueiu-  [bsqoeir],  m.,  Lesueur. 

lettre  [letr],  /.,  letter. 

leiu"  [loe:r],  their;  le  — ,  pron., 
theirs. 

leur  [loe:r],  pers.  pron.,  to  them, 
for  them,  them. 

lever  [lave],  to  lift;  se  — ,  to  rise; 
—  la  tete,  to  look  up. 

lever  [bve],  m.,  rising;  —  du 
soleil,  sunrise. 

liberte  [liberte],  /.,  liberty. 

libre  [libr],  free. 

lieu  [Ijo],  ?«.,  place;  au  —  de,  in- 
stead of. 

lieue  [Ijo],  /.,  league,  four  kilo- 
meters, 2^  miles. 

lieutenant  [Ijetanrx],  ?«.,  lieuten- 
ant. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


223 


ligue  [lig],  /.,  league;  la  Ligue, 

party  of  the  Guises. 
Limousin  [limuze],  m.,  Limousin, 

province  containing  Limoges. 
lion,  -ne  [Ijo,  lion],  m.,  /.,  lion. 
lire  [li:r],  irr.,  to  read;  en  lisant, 

by  or  while  reading. 
lisiere  [lizje:r],  /.,  edge,  border. 
livre  [liivr],  m.,  book;  a  —  ouvert, 

like  an  open  book, 
livre  [li:vr],  /.,  pound,  demi-kilo, 

500  grams. 
livrer  [livre],  to  deliver;  —  ba- 

taille,  to  give  battle. 
loi  [Iwa],  /.,  law. 
loin  [Iwe],  far. 
long,  -ue  [15,  l5:g],  long;  le  — 

de,  along;  tout  au  — ,  at  full 

length. 
longtemps    [lota],    long,    a   long 

time. 
longueiu-  [logoeir],  /.,  length. 
Lorraine  [loren],  /.,  Lorraine, 
lors  [b:r],  then. 
lorsque  [lorsk],  when. 
louer  [Iwe],  to  rent,  hire,  let. 
louer  [Iwe],  to  praise. 
Louis  [Iwi],  TO.,  Louis. 
Louise  [Iwiiz],  /.,  Louise, 
loup  [lu],  m.,  wolf. 
lourd  [lu:r],  heavy. 
louve  [lu:v],  /.,  she-wolf. 
Louvois  [luvwa],  m.,  Louvois. 
Louvre    [lu:vr],   Louvre,   palace, 

also  a  store. 
loyal  [Iwajal],  loyal. 
lueur  [IqcEir]  /.,  hght,  glow. 
lui  [Iqi],  him,  her,  to  him,  to  her, 

he,  it. 
luire    [Iqiir],    irr.,  see   nuire,    to 

shine,   gleam,  glitter. 
lundi  [Idedi],  to.,  Monday. 
lunette  [lynet],  /.,  telescope,  spy- 
glass; pi.,  spectacles. 


lut  [ly],  see  lire. 

lycee  [Use],  to.,  public  high  school. 

lyre  [li:r],  /.,  lyre,  music. 

M 

ma  [ma],  feminine  of  mon,  my. 

madame,  pi.  mesdames  [madam, 
medam],  /.,  madam,  Mrs. 

magnifique  [majiifik],  magnifi- 
cent. 

mai  [me],  m.,  May. 

main  [me],  /.,  hand;  fait  a  la  — , 
made  by  hand. 

maint  [me],  many  a,  many  a 
one. 

maintenant  [metona],  now. 

maire  [me:r],  /«.,  mayor. 

mairie  [meri],  /.,  mayor's  office, 
town-hall. 

mais  [me],  but;  why. 

maison  [mezo],  /.,  hou.se. 

maisonnette  [mezonet],  /.,  cot- 
tage. 

maitre  [me:tr],  m.,  master,  teach- 
er (in  lower  schools). 

maitresse  [metres],  /.,  mistress, 
teacher. 

majeur  [masceir],  major,  greater. 

majorite  [masorite],  /.,  majority. 

mal  [mal],  adv.,  ill,  badly;  le  — , 
TO.,  evil. 

malade  [malad],  ill,  sick. 

malheur  [maloeir],  to.,  misery, 
misfortune. 

malheureusement  [maloer0zma], 
unfortunately. 

malheureux,  -se  [malo^ro,  -roiz], 
unhappy,  wretched,  miserable. 

malhonnete  [malonet],  dishonest. 

malin,  -igne  [male,  -liji],  cunning, 
mischievous,  slu-ewd. 

malle  [mal],  /.,  trunk. 

manche  [ma:^],  to.,  handle. 


224 


VOCABULARY 


manche    [maiS],    /.,    sleeve;    la 

Manche,  English  Channel. 
manger    [mclse],    to    eat,    wear 

away. 
maniere  [manjeir],  /.,  manner. 
mannequin  [manke],  w.,  puppet, 

manikin,  dummy. 

manquer  [make],  to  lack,  miss, 

be  wanting;  qui  lui  manque, 

which  he  lacks. 

Mansard  [masair],  m.,  Mansard. 

marchandise      [marSadiiz],      /., 

goods,  merchandise. 
marchepied  [mar^apje],  m.,  foot- 
rope,  step;  faux  — ,  foot-rope. 
marcher  [mar^e],  to  walk. 
mardi  [mardi],  m.,  Tuesday. 
mari  [mari],  m.,  husband. 
Marie  [mari],/.,  Mary. 
marier  [marje],  to  marry. 
marquis,  -e  [marki,  -ki:z],  m.,  /., 

marquis,  marchioness. 
marron  [maro],  vi.,  chestnut. 
mars  [mars],  m.,  March. 
masse  [mas],  /.,  mass,  body;  en 

— ,  collectively,  all  together. 
matelot  [matlo],  m.,  sailor. 
matin  [mate],  m.,  morning. 
maudire  [modi:r],  irr.,  see  dire, 

to  curse. 
mauvais  [move],  bad,  naughty. 
Maximilien      [maksimilje],      m., 

Maximilian. 
Mayenne      [majen],     Mayenne, 
brother  of  the  duke  of  Guise. 
Mazarin  [mazare],  m.,  (Cardinal) 

Mazarin. 
me  [ma],  me,  to  me,  for  me. 
Meaux  [mo],  m.,  Meaux,  city  20 

miles  east  of  Paris, 
mechamment  [me^ama],  wicked- 
ly, maliciously. 
mechant   [me^d],   wicked,   cross, 
ugly. 


medecin  [metse],  m.,  doctor. 

medecine  [metsin],  /.,  medicine. 

mediocre  [medjokr],  mediocre. 

meilleur  [mejoerr],  adj.,  better; 
le  — ,  best. 

melancolique  [melakolik],  melan- 
choly, depressing,  sad. 

meler  [mc:le],  to  mix;  se  —  de, 
to  meddle,  interfere;  melez- 
vous  de  vos  affaires,  mind 
your  own  business. 

melon  [malo],  m.,  melon. 

membre  [ma:br],  vi.,  member, 
limb. 

meme  [memi],  same,  even,  very, 
self;  tout  de  — ,  just  the  same. 
§  89c. 

memoire  [memwair],  /.,  memory. 

menace  [manas],  /.,  tlireat. 

menacer  [monase],  to  tlireaten. 

mener  [mane],  to  lead,  take. 

menteur,  -euse  [matoe:r,  -o:z], 
lying,  deceitful. 

mentir  [matiir],  irr.,  see  dormir, 
to  lie,  tell  falsehoods. 

menuisier  [manqizje],  ?«.,  car- 
penter, cabinet-maker. 

mepriser  [meprize],  to  despise. 

mer  [me:r],  /.,  sea,  ocean. 

merci  [mersi],  /.,  favor,  grace, 
mercy,  thanks;  grand  — ,  m., 
many  thanks. 

mercredi  [merkradi],  tn.,  Wednes- 
day. 

mere  [meir],  /.,  mother. 

merle  [merl],  /«.,  blackbird. 

merveille  [merveij],  /.,  marvel, 
wonder. 

mesaventure  [mezavaty:r],  /.,  ac- 
cident, mishap. 
messieurs    [mesjo],    gentlemen, 

Messrs. 
mesurer   [mazyre],   to   naeasure, 
estimate. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


225 


metal  [metal],  m.,  metal. 

metier  [metje],  ?«.,  trade,  busi- 
ness. 

metre  [metr],  m.,  meter,  39.37 
inches. 

mettre  [mctr],  irr.,  to  put,  place, 
put  on;  se  —  a,  to  begin  to; 
mettez-vous  la,  sit  (stand) 
there!;  se  —  a  table,  to  go  to 
the  table,  come  to  dinner;  — 
des  souliers,  to  put  on  some 
shoes. 

meubler  [moeble],  to  furnish. 

meunier  [monje],  //;.,  miUer. 

Mexique  [meksik],  m.,  Mexico. 

mi-c6te  [miko:t],  half  way  up  the 
hill. 

midi  [midi],  ni.,  noon,  twelve 
o'clock. 

mien  [mje],  mine. 

miette  [nijet],  /.,  crmub. 

miexix  [nijo],  better;  poixr  le  — , 
for  the  best. 

Mignard  [mijiair],  Mignard. 

mignon  [mijio],  pretty,  little, 
darling. 

mil  [mil],  a  thousand  (in  dates 
between  1000  and  2000  a.d.). 

militaire  [militeir],  military. 

mille  [mil],  m.,  mile. 

mille  [mil],  a  thousand. 

milliard  [miljair],  /«.,  a  billion. 

millier  [milje],  m.,  a  thou.sand. 

million  [miljo],  m.,  a  million. 

ministre  [ministr],  iti.,  minister. 

minuit  [mimji],  in.,  midnight, 
twelve  o'clock. 

minute  [minyt],  /.,  minute,  in- 
stant. 

miserable  [mizerabl],  ^\Tetched; 
WTetch. 

mission  [misjo], /.,  mission. 

mit  [mi],  see  mettre. 

mode  [mod],  /.,  fashion,  style. 


moderer  [modere],  to  moderate. 

modeste  [m,idest],  modest. 

moi  [mwa],  me,  I,  to  me,  for  me; 
meme,  myself. 

moindre  [mwe:dr],  adj.,  less;  le 
— ,  least. 

moine  [mwan],  m.,  monk. 

moins  [mwf],  adv.,  less;  le  — ,  the 
less,  the  least;  —  beau,  not  so 
handsome;  au  — ,  at  least;  a 
—  que,  unless  {with  ne  and 
subj.). 

mois  [mwci],  w.,  month. 

moitie  [mwatje], /.,  half. 

MoUere  [moljeir],  m.,  Moliere. 

moment  [numfi],  ni.,  moment. 

mon,  ma,  mes  [mo,  ma,  me],  my. 

monarchie  [mouar^i],  /.,  mon- 
archy. 

monde  [m.5:d],  m.,  world,  com- 
pany, society;  tout  le  — , 
everyone. 

monsieur,  pi.  messieiu-s  [masjo, 
mesjo],  ni.,  gentleman,  sir, 
Mr. 

mont  [mo],  m.,  moimt,  mountain, 
peak. 

montagnard  [motajia:r],  //;., 
momitaineer. 

montagne  [motaji],  /.,  momitain. 

monter  [mote],  to  go  up,  step  up 
into,  enter. 

montre  [mo:tr],  /.,  watch. 

montrer  [motre],  to  show. 

montueux  -se  [motijo,  -0:z], 
steep. 

monimient  [monyma],  m.,  monu- 
ment, public  building. 

moquer  (se)  [so  moke],  to  ridi- 
cule, laugh  at. 

morceau  [morso],  m.,  piece,  frag- 
ment. 

mordre  [mordr],  to  bite. 

mort  [nio:r],/.,  death;  m.,  dummy. 


226 


VOCABULARY 


mort,  see  motorir. 

mortel,  -le  [mortel],  mortal, 
deadly. 

Moscou  [mosku],  Moskow,  an- 
cient capital  of  Russia. 

Moskova  [moskova],  /.,  Mos- 
kowa,  river  by  Moskow. 

mot  [mo],  m.,  word. 

mou,  mol,  molle  [mu,  mol],  soft. 

mouchoir  [mu;^\va:r],  //*.,  hand- 
kerchief. 

moiulle  [muje],  wet;  anchored, 
moored. 

mouiller  [muje],  to  wet,  anchor. 

moulin  [mule],  m.,  mill. 

mourir  [muri:r],  irr.,  to  die. 

moustache  [musta^j,  /.,  mus- 
tache, whiskers  (of  animals). 

mouton  [muto],  m.,  sheep. 

mouvement  [muvma],  m.,  move- 
ment, impulse. 

mouvoir  [muvwair],  irr.,  to 
move. 

muet,  -te  [mqe,  -et],  mute, 
dumb,  silent. 

multitude  [myltityd],  /.,  multi- 
tude, crowd. 

mur  [niyir],  //;.,  wall. 

mur  [my:r],  ripe. 

muraille  [myrcnj],/.,  wall. 

murier  [myrje],  m.,  mulberry 
tree. 

murmure  [myrmyir],  m.,  mur- 
mur. 

musee  [myze],  m.,  museum. 


N 

nage  [na:3],  /.,  swimming,  row- 
ing. 

nager  [nase],  to  swim,  float,  row. 

naguere  [nage:r],  just  before. 

naitre  [ne:tr],  irr.,  to  be  born, 
spring  up. 


Naple  [napl],  Naples. 

Napoleon  [napoleo],  m.,  Napo- 
leon. 

nation  [nasjo],/.,  nation. 

national  [nasjjnal],  national. 

nature  [natyir],  /.,  nature. 

Navarre  [navair],  /.,  Navarre. 

ne  [na],  not;  —  ...  pas,  not;  — 
.  .  .  ni  .  .  .  ni,  neither  .  .  . 
nor;  —  ...  rien,  nothing;  — 
.  .  .  que,  only. 

ne  [ne],  see  naitre. 

necessaire  [nesese:r],  necessary. 

negre,  negresse  [ne:gr,  negres], 
m.,  /.,  negro,  negress. 

neige  [ne:5],  /.,  snow. 

net,  -te  [net],  neat,  clean,  clear, 
distinct. 

nettement  [netma],  plainly,  dis- 
tinctly. 

nettoyer  [netwaje],  to  clean. 

neuf  [noe(f),  noev],  nine;  a  — 
heures,  at  nine  o'clock. 

neuf,  -ve  [noef,  noe:v],  new,  just 
made;  tout  — ,  brand  new. 

neuvieme  [novjem],  ninth. 

neveu  [navo],  m.,  nephew. 

nez  [ne],  in.,  nose. 

ni  [ni],  neither,  nor;  ne  .  .  .  — , 
neither  .  .  .  nor. 

nier  [nje],  to  deny. 

noble  [nobl],  noble. 

noblesse  [nobles],  /.,  nobility. 

noir  [nwa:r],  black. 

Noiraud  [nwaro],  to.,  Blacky. 

noix  [nwa],  /.,  nut,  w^alnut. 

nom  [no],  m.,  noun,  name. 

nombreux,  -se  [nobro,  -0:z], 
numerous. 

nommer  [name],  to  name,  ap- 
point. 

non  [no],  no,  not. 

Normandie  [normadi],  /.,  Nor- 
mandy. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


227 


notre,  pi.  nos  [notr,  no],  our. 

notre  [no:tr],  ours. 

nourrir  [nuri:r],  to  feed. 

nous  [nu],  we,  us,  ourselves. 

nouveau,  nouvel,  nouvelle  [nuvo, 
nuvt'l],  new;  de  — ,  again, 
anew. 

nouvelle  [nuvcl],  /.,  a  piece  of 
news;  de  vos  — s,  news  of  you. 

novembre  [nova:br],  m.,  Novem- 
ber. 

noyer  [nwaje],  m.,  walnut-tree. 

nu  [ny],  bare,  naked. 

nuee  [nqe],  /.,  cloud,  swarm. 

nuit  [nqi],  /.,  night;  de  — ,  by 
night. 

nixl,  -le  [nyl],  no,  no  one. 

ntillement  [nylma],  not  at  all. 


oasis  [oazis],  /.,  oasis. 
obeir  [,>bei:r]  (a),  to  obey, 
objet  [.jbje],  m.,  object,  thing, 
obliger  [oblise],  to  oblige. 
obscurcir  [opskyrsiir],  to  obscure, 

darken. 
observer  [opserA^e],  to  observe. 
occuper  [okype],  to  busy,  occupy. 
octobre  [oktobr],  m.,  October, 
odeur  [odoeir],  /.,  odor, 
odieux,  -se  [odjo,  — 0:z],  odious, 
ceil,  pi.  yeux  [ce:j,  jo],  m.,  eye. 
oeillet  [oeje],  m.,  carnation,  pink, 
offrir  [ofri:r],  irr.,  see  couvrir,  to 

offer 
oiseau  [wazo],  m.,  bird. 
Olivier  de  Serres  [olivje  da  se:r], 

01i\-er  de   Serres,    adviser  of 

Henry  IV. 
ombre  [3:br],  /.,  shade. 
ombreux  [obro],  shady. 
on  [3],  one,  someone,  they,  folks, 

people,  we,  you,  men.     §  85. 


oncle  [oikl],  m.,  uncle. 

ont  [3],  see  avoir. 

onze  [3:z],  eleven. 

opinion  [opinj5],  /.,  opinion. 

or  [oir],  m.,  gold. 

or  [o:r],  now. 

oraison  [orez5],  /.,  oration. 

orange  [orais],  /.,  orange. 

ordinaire  [ordineir],  ordinary; 
d' — ,  usually. 

ordonner  [ordone],  to  order,  com- 
mand. 

ordre  [ordr],  m.,  order. 

oreille  [ore:j],  /.,  ear. 

organiser  [organize],  to  organize. 

orgueil  [orgoeij],  m.,  pride. 

Orion  [orjo],  m.,  Orion,  name  of 
a  constellation  and  of  a  ship. 

oser  [oze],  to  dare  {in  negative, 
ne  .  .  .  often  without  pas). 

ou  [u],  or;  —  ...  — ,  either  ...  or. 

oh  [u],  where,  in  which,  at  which, 
when;  d'— ,  whence. 

oublier  [ublie],  to  forget. 

otii  [wi],  yes. 

Guir  [wi:r],  to  hear,  used  in  in- 
finitive and  past  participle  only. 

outil  [uti],  m.,  tool,  instrument. 

ouvert  [uve:r],  (ouvrir),  open; 
grand  — ,  wide  open. 

ouvrier  [uvrie],  7n.,  workman, 
laborer. 

ouvrir  [uvriir],  irr.,  see  couvrir,  to 
open. 


page  [pa:3],  /.,  page. 
Paget  [pa38],  m.,  Paget, 
pain  [pe],  m.,  bread. 
paille  [pa:j], /.,  straw. 
paire  [pe:r],  /.,  pair. 
paix  [pe],  /.,  peace. 
palais  [pale],  m.,  palace, 
pale  [pa:l],  pale. 


228 


VOCABULARY 


palir  [paliir],  to  grcfw  pale. 

pantalon  [patalo],  m.,  trousers. 

papier  [papje],  m.,  paper. 

par  [par],  ijy,  through,  on,  per. 

paraitre  [pareitr],  irr.,  see  con- 
naitre,  to  appear,  seem. 

parapluie  [parapkp],  m.,  um- 
brella. 

parce  que  [parsaka],  because. 

parcourir  [parkuriir],  to  run 
along,  run  over. 

pardon  [pardo],  m.,  pardon. 

pardonner  [pardone]  (a),  to  for- 
give, pardon. 

pareil,  -le  Jpareij],  similar,  like, 
equal,  the  same. 

parent  [para],  m.,  relative,  parent. 

paresseux,  -se  [pareso,  -0:z], 
lazy,  idle. 

parfait  [parfe],  perfect;  — ement, 
perfectly,  completely. 

parfum  [parfde],  m.,  perfume. 

parfumer  [parfyme],  to  perfume. 

Paris  [pari],  to.,  Paris. 

parlement  [parlama],  m.,  parlia- 
ment. 

parler  [parle],  to  speak. 

parole  [parol],  /.,  speech. 

part  [pair],  /.,  part,  share. 

parti  [parti],  to.,  part,  side,  party, 
match;  prendre  un  — ,  to 
make  a  decision. 

participe  [partisip],  m.,  partici- 
ple. 

partie  [parti],  /.,  part,  portion. 

partir  [partiir],  irr.,  see  dormir, 
to  set  out,  leave. 

partout  [partu],  everywhere. 

parvenir  [parvaniir],  irr.,  see 
venir,  to  arrive,  succeed;  par- 
venu a,  having  reached. 

pas  [pa],  TO.,  step,  pace. 

pas  [pa],  no,  not;  ne  .  .  .  — ,  not. 

Pascal  [paskal],  /«.,  Pascal. 


passage    [pasa:3],    m 

way;  au  — ,  as  he  passed. 
passe  [pase],  to.,  past. 
passer  [pase],  to  pass;  se  — ,  to 

do  without;  —  et  re — ,  to  go 

back  and  forth. 
patience  [pasjais],  /.,  patience. 
patiner  [pat  ine],  to  skate. 
patrie    [patri],   /.,    native    land, 

fatherland, 
patriote  [patriot],  patriotic, 
patron     [patro],    m.,    employer, 

master. 
Paul  [pjl],  TO.,  Paul, 
pauvre  [poivr],  poor, 
payer  [peje],  to  pay,  pay  for;  — 

quelque    chose    deux   sous   a 

quelqu'un,  to  pay  someone  two 

cents  for  something. 
pays    [pei],  to.,    country,    place; 

Pays-Bas,      Low      Countries, 

Holland  and  Belgium. 
paysan,  -ne  [peiza,  peizan],  m., 

/.,  peasant. 
peau  [po],  /.,  skin. 
peche  [pei'j;],  /.,  fishing;  la  —  aux 

truites,  trout-fishing. 
pecher  [pc^e],  to  fish,  catch, 
pecheresse  [pe^rcs],  /.,  sinner. 
pecheur  [pe^ceir],  m.,  sinner. 
peine  [pen],  /.,  pain,  trouble;  a 

— ,  scarcely. 
peintre  [pe:tr],  m.,  painter. 
peler  [pole],  to  peel. 
penchant  [pa^a],  m.,  tendency. 
pencher  [pa^e],  to  lean. 
pendant  [pada],  during;  —  que, 

while. 
pendre    [paidr],    to   hang,    hang 

down. 
penser  [pase],  to  think,  imagine; 

—  a,  to  think  of. 
perce-neige  [persneis],  /.,  snow- 
drop. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


229 


perdre  [perdr],  to  lose. 

perdrix  [perclri],  /.,  partridge. 

pere  [pe:r],  m.,  father. 

perir  [periir],  to  perish. 

pennettre  [permetr],  irr.,  see 
mettre,  to  permit. 

permission  [permisjo],  /.,  per- 
mission. 

Perrault  [pero],  m.,  Perrauk. 

persecuteur,  -trice  [persekytoeir, 
-tris],  persecutor. 

persomie  [person],  /.,  person; 
pron.,  ne  .  .  .  — ,  m.,  no  one, 
nobod}'. 

persuader  [perswade],  to  per- 
suade, convince. 

peser  [paze],  to  weigli. 

petit  [pati],  small; fils,  grand- 
son. 

peu  [po],  little. 

peuple  [poepl],  vi.,  people,  nation. 

peur  [pa?ir],  /.,  fear;  avoir  — ,  to 
be  afraid;  de  — ,  for  fear. 

peut-etre  [pceteitr],  perhaps, 
maj'-be. 

phrase  [fra:z],  /.,  sentence. 

Philippe  le  Beau  [filip  b  bo], 
Pliilip  the  Fair. 

philosophe  [fibsof],  m.,  philoso- 
pher. 

Pie  [pi],  Pius,  name  of  pope. 

piece  [pjes],  /.,  piece  (of  money, 
cloth,  etc.). 

pied  [pje],  m.,  foot. 

pierre  [pjeir],  /.,  stone. 

Pierre  [pje:r],  >n.,  Peter. 

pire  [pi:r],  adj.,  worse;  le  — , 
worst. 

pis  [pi],  adu.,  worse;  le  — ,  worst. 

pitie  [pitje],  /.,  pity. 

pivoine  [pi\'wan],/.,  peony. 

place  [plas],  /.,  place,  square. 

placer  [plase],  to  place. 

plage  [pla:5],  /.,  beach,  shore. 


plaindre  [pleidr],  to  pity;  se  — , 

to  complain. 
plaine  [plcn],  /.,  plain. 
plainte  [ple:t],  /.,  complaint. 
plaire  [plc:r],  irr.,  to  please;  — ■  a 

Jean,  to  please  John;  cela  me 

plait,  I  lilce  that. 
plaisir     [pleziir],     ///.,     pleasure; 

avec  — ,  gladly;  faire  un  — ,  to 

do  a  favor, 
planter  [plute],  to  plant, 
plein  [pie],  full, 
pleiu-er  [plcere],  to  weep, 
pleuvoir  [plcevwair],  irr.,  to  rain, 
plisser  [plise],  to  fold,  pleat, 
plomb  [plo],  m.,  lead, 
plonger  [plo5e],  to  plunge,  dive, 
pluie  [plqi],  /.,  rain. 
plume  [plym],  /.,  pen,  feather. 
plupart  [plypair],  /.,  most;  la  — 

des  hormnes,  most  men. 
plus   [ply],  more;   u-Uh  negation, 

no    more,    no    longer;    —    de 

temps,  no  more  time;  le  — , 

the  more,  the  most. 
plusieurs  [plusjojir],  several, 
poche    [poS],  /•,    pocket;    la   — ■ 

pleine,  with  a  full  pocket. 
poete  [poe:t],  /«.,  poet. 
poids  [pwa],  m.,  weight;  vendre 

au  — ,  to  sell  by  weight. 
poll  [pwal],  m.,  hair, 
poinfonner  [pwesone],  to  punch. 
point  [pwe],  m.,  dot,  point;  ne 

.  .  .  — ,  not,  not  at  all. 
pointe  [pwe:t],  /.,  point,  tip,  end. 
poire  [pwa:r],  /.,  pear. 
poison  [pwazo],  m.,  poison. 
Poitiers  [pwatje],  /«.,  Poitiers, 
poix  [pwa],  /.,  pitch,  wax. 
poll  [poli],  polite,  polished. 
polir  [poli:r],  to  polish,  smooth. 
pomme  [pom],  /.,  apple;  —  (de 

terre),  potato. 


230 


VOCABULARY 


pommier  [ponije],  m.,  apple-tree, 
ponceau  [p5so],  m.,  bright  red. 
porcelaine   [porsalen],  /.,   porce- 

laine,  china. 
porte  [port],  /.,  door,  gate;  —  de 

sortie,  exit. 
porter    [porte],    to    carry,    bear, 

wear. 
Portugal  [portygal],  m.,  Portugal, 
posseder  [posede],  to  possess. 
poste  [post],  /.,  post-office. 
pot  [po],  m.,  pot,  kettle. 
poudreux  [pudro],  dusty. 
poule  [pul],  /.,  hen. 
poulet,   -te    [pule,    -et],    ?«.,  /., 

chicken. 
poumon  [pumo],  m.,  lung. 
poupee  [pupe],  /.,  doll. 
pour  [pu(:)r],   for,   in  order  to; 
— ■  que,  in  order  that,  so  that. 
pourpre  [purpr],  m.,  purple, 
poiirquoi  [purkwa],  why? 
pourtant  [purta],  still,  neverthe- 
less, yet. 
pourvoir  [purvwa:r],  irr.,  to  pro- 
vide. 
potu-vii  que  [purvy  ka],  provided 

that,  only  let! 
pousser    [puse],    to   push,    urge, 

utter. 
poussiere  [pusjeir],  /.,  dust. 
Poussin  [puse],  m.,  Poussin. 
pouvoir  [puvwair],  m.,  power, 
pouvoir    [puvwa:r],    irr.,    to    be 

able,  can,  may. 
pre  [pre],  /«.,  meadow. 
precaution    [prekosjo],    /.,    pre- 
caution, care. 
precis  [presi],  e.xact,  precise, 
precisement     [presizema],     pre- 
cisely. 
preference  [preferais],  /.,  prefer- 
ence. 
preferer  [prefere],  to  prefer. 


prelude  [prelyd],  m.,  prelude, 
premier,  -ere  [promje,  -e:r],  first. 
prendre  [pra:dr],  to  take,  seize, 
catch;  —  a  temoin,  to  appeal. 
preparatif  [preparatif],  ni.,  prep- 
aration. 
preposition  [prepozisjo],  /.,  prep- 
osition. 
pres  [pre],  near;  —  de,  near  to; 

a  peu  — ,  nearly,  about, 
present  [preza],  present. 
presentement      [prezatma],      at 

present. 
presenter  [prezate],  present,  of- 
fer, hand;  se  — ,  to  appear, 
presque  [presk],  almost, 
presse  [pres],  /.,  press. 
presser  [prese],  to  hurry, 
pret  [pre],  ready. 
pretendre    [preta:dr],   to   aspire, 

claim. 
preter  [prete],  to  lend, 
pretre  [pre:tr],  m.,  priest. 
prevenir     [pre\Tii:r],     irr.,     see 
tenir,  to  warn,  give  notice  in 
advance. 
prier  [prie],  to  pray,  beg. 
priere  [prie:r],  /.,  prayer. 
prince  [pre:s],  m.,  prince, 
princesse  [preses],  /.,  princess. 
principal     [presipal],     principal, 

chief. 
printemps  [preta],  )n.,  spring. 
pris  [pri],  see  prendre, 
prise  [pri:z],  /.,  capture, 
prison  [prizo],  /.,  prison. 
prisonnier,  -ere  [prizonje,  -e:r], 

m.,  /.,  prisoner. 
prive  [prive],  private. 
privilege  [privile:5],  m.,  privilege, 
prix  [pri],  m.,  price,  prize;  a  tout 

— ,  at  any  cost. 
professeur  [profesoerr],  m.,  teach- 
er, professor. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


231 


profession  [profesjS],  /.,  profes- 
sion. 

profond  [profo],  deep. 

profondeur  [prof 5doe:r],  /.,  depth. 

progres  [progre],  m.,  progress. 

promenade  [promnad],  /.,  walk, 
trip. 

promener  [promane],  to  take 
about;  se  — ,  to  walk,  go  about 
(for  pleasure);  — ■  en  voiture, 
—  en  bateau,  etc. 

promettre  [pr.jmetr],  irr.,  see 
mettre,  to  promise. 

pronom  [prono],  m,.,  pronoun. 

prononcer  [pronose],  to  pro- 
nounce. 

proprete  [proprate],  /.,  neatness, 
cleanliness. 

propriete  [propriete],/.,  property, 
estate. 

prose  [pro:z],  /.,  prose. 

protecteur  [protektoeir],  m.,  pro- 
tector. 

proteger  [protese],  to  protect. 

Provence  [provais],  /.,  Provence, 
province  of  southern  France. 

province  [proveis],  /.,  province. 

prudenunent  [prydama],  pru- 
dently. 

prudent  [pryda],  prudent. 

Prusse  [prys],  /.,  Prussia. 

Prussien  [prysje],  m.,  Prus- 
sian. 

public,  -que  [pyblik],  public. 

ptiis  [pqi],  then,  next,  after- 
ward. 

puisque  [pqiska],  since. 

puissance  [pqisais],  /.,  power. 

puissant  [pqisa],  powerful. 

punir  [pyni:r],  to  punish. 

punition  [pynisjo],  /.,  punish- 
ment. 

pupitre  [pypitr],  ?n.,  slant-top 
desk,  pupil's  desk. 


quand  [ka],  when. 

quant  a  [kata],  as  for. 

quarante  [karciit],  forty. 

quart  [kair],  vi.,  quarter. 

quatorze  [katorz],  fourteen. 

quatre  [katr],  four. 

quatre-vingts  [katrave],  eighty. 

que  [ko],  pron.,  whom,  which, 
that,  what.      §§  73,  80,  81. 

que  [ka],  conj.,  that,  than,  as; 
with  subj.,  let;  {replaces  other 
conjunctions  in  a  following 
co-ordinate  clause).  §§  133, 
228. 

que  [ka],  adv.,  how,  what,  how 
much,  why;  ne  .  .  .  — ,  only, 
but.     §§  201,  229. 

quel,  -le  [kel],  what,  which;  who; 
what  a. 

quelconque  [kelkoik],  whatever, 
whatsoever. 

quelque  [kelk],  some;  pi.,  a  few; 
—  ...  que,  whatever,  how- 
ever (ivith  subjunctive). 

quelque  chose  [kelko^oiz],  7n., 
something. 

quelquefois  [kelkafwa],  some- 
times. 

quelqu'un,  quelques-uns  [kelkoe, 
kelkazde],  someone,  some,  a 
few. 

question  [kestjo],  /.,  question. 

qui  [ki],  who,  which,  that  whom; 
a  — ,  whose;  ce  — ,  what;  — 
que,  whoever. 

Quint  (Charles)  [^arl  ke],  Charles 
V  (of  Spain). 

quinze  [ke:z],  fifteen;  —  jours,  a 
fortnight. 

quitter  [kite],  to  leave. 

quoi  [kwa],  what,  which;  de  — , 
whereof,  wherewith;  il  n'y  a 


23: 


VOCABULARY 


pas  de  — ,  you  are  welcome, 
don't    mention    it;    —    que, 
whatever. 
quoique  [kwako],  although. 


Racine  [rasin],  /».,  Racine. 

rafraichir  [rafre^iir],  1o  refresh. 

rage  [ra:5],/.,  madness,  fury. 

raisonner  [rezone],  to  reason, 
argue,  object. 

ramener  [ramne],  to  bring  back. 

ranfon  [ras.i],  /.,  ransom. 

rang  [rci],  in.,  rank. 

ranger  [rose],  to  draw  u{),  place, 
seat,  arrange. 

rapidement  [rapidma],  rapidly. 

rappeler  [raple],  to  call  back;  se 
— ,  to  remember. 

rebondissement  [rgbodismci],  m., 
leap. 

recemment  [resama],  recently. 

recent  [resa],  recent. 

recevoir  [rasavwair],  irr.,  to  re- 
ceive. 

recit  [resi],  m.,  story. 

reciter  [resite],  to  recite. 

recommencer  [rakomase],  to  be- 
gin again,  repeat. 

recompense  [rckopais],/.,  reward. 

reconnaitre  [rgkoneitr],  irr.,  see 
connaitre,  to  recognize. 

redescendre  [radesa:dr],  to  go 
down  again. 

redevance  [rodavdis],  /.,  dues, 
taxes. 

redingote  [radcgot], /.,  frock-coat. 

redoutable  [radutabl],  dreadful, 
formidable. 

reduire  [redqiir],  irr.,  see  con- 
duire,  to  reduce. 

reflechi  [refle^i],  thoughtful. 

refiechir  [retle$i:r],  to  reflect. 


reflexion  [refleksja],/.,  reflection. 

reforme  [reform],  /.,  reform. 

refuser  [rofyze],  to  refuse. 

regard  [ragair],  m.,  look,  eye. 

regarder  [ragairde],  to  watch, 
look,  look  at;  cela  ne  vous 
regarde  pas,  that  does  not 
concern  you. 

regiment  [re3ima],  m.,  regiment. 

regie  [rt-rgl],  /.,  ruler,  rule;  ex- 
ample. 

reglement  [reglama],  )n.,  regula- 
tion. 

regne  [reji],  m.,  reign. 

regretter  [ragrete],  to  regret,  feel 
sorry. 

reine  [rcn],  /.,  queen. 

rejaillissement  [rasajisma],  m., 
spurt. 

reluire  [ralyiir],  irr.,  see  nuire,  to 
glitter. 

remarquable  [ramarkabl],  re- 
markable. 

remarquer  [ramarke],  to  notice. 

remede  [ramed],  /.,  remedy. 

remercier  [ramersje],  to  thank. 

remettre  [rametr],  irr.,  see  mettre, 
to  give  up,  put  back,  hand,  re- 
cover, postpone. 

remonter  [ramote],  to  raise,  roll 
up,  wind  up;  to  go  up  (again). 

remplacer  [raplase],  to  replace, 
take  the  place  of. 

remporter  [raporte],  to  carry  off, 
win. 

remuer  [ramqe],  to  move,  stir. 

rendre  [ra:dr],  to  make,  render; 
give  back;  restore;  se  — ,  to  go. 

rentrer  [rntre],  to  re-enter,  re- 
turn. 

renvoyer  [ravwaje],  irr.,  .see  en- 
voyer,  to  send  back,  send  away. 

reparer  [repare],  to  repair,  make 
amends  for. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


233 


repasser  [rapase],  to  pass  again; 
to  iron. 

repeter  [repete],  to  repeat. 

repondre  [repoidr],  to  reply,  re- 
spond, answer. 

reponse  [rep5:s],  /.,  reply. 

reposer  (se)  [sa  rgpoze],  to  rest. 

repousser  [rapuse],  to  repulse. 

reprendre  [rapraidr],  irr.,  see 
prendre,  to  take  back,  resume. 

representer  [raprezate],  to  rep- 
resent . 

reprimander  [reprimade],  to  re- 
prove, reprimand. 

reproche  [rapro^],  /.,  reproach. 

reprocher  [rapro^e],  to  reproach. 

republique  [repyblik],/.,  republic. 

requisition  [rekizisjo],  /.,  requisi- 
tion. 

resistance  [rezistais],  /.,  resis- 
tance. 

resister  [reziste],  to  resist. 

resolument  [resolyma],  resolutely. 

resoudre  [rezudr],  irr.,  to  re- 
solve. 

respectable  [respektabl],  respec- 
table. 

respecter  [respekte],  to  respect. 

respirer  [respire],  to  breathe. 

ressemblance  [rasdblais],  /.,  re- 
semblance. 

reste  [rest],  m.,  rest;  du  — , 
moreover. 

raster  [reste],  to  remain,  stay. 

retabli  [retabli],  well  again. 

retard  [rata:r],  m.,  delay;  en  — , 
late. 

retenir  [ratniir],  irr.,  see  tenir, 
to  retain,  delay,  keep. 

retoumer  [raturne],  to  turn 
around. 

retraite  [ratret],  /.,  retreat. 

retrouver  [ratruve],  to  find 
(again). 


reunion  [reynjo],  /.,  union,  meet- 
ing, assembly. 

reunir  [reyniir],  to  assemble,  col- 
lect. 

reussir  [reysiir],  to  succeed. 

revenir  [ra\Tii:r],  irr.,  see  tenir, 
to  come  back,  recover. 

revolter  (se)  [sa  revoke],  to  rebel. 

revolution  [revolysj5],  /.,  revolu- 
tion. 

Rheims  [re:s],  m.,  Rheims;  city 
where  the  kings  of  France  were 
c^o^^led. 

Rhin  [re],  m.,  Rhine. 

riche  [ri^j,  rich. 

Richelieu  [ri^ljo],  m.,  (Cardinal) 
Richelieu. 

rien  [rje],  anything;  ne  .  .  .  — , 
nothing;  — !  nothing! 

Rippert  [ripeir],  Rippert;  le  pre 
— ,  Rippert's  meadow. 

rire  [ri:r],  ?«.,  laughter. 

rire  [ri:r],  irr.,  to  laugh. 

risque  [risk],  m.,  risk,  danger. 

risquer  [riske],  to  risk,  venture. 

robe  [rob],  /.,  dress,  gown,  robe. 

Robespierre  [robaspjeir],  m., 
Robespierre. 

roche  [ro^],  /.,  stone,  mass  of 
stone. 

rocher  [ro$e],  m.,  rock,  cliff, 
boulder. 

roi  [rwa],  rn.,  king. 

Remain  [rome],  m.,  Roman. 

reman  [roma],  m.,  romance, 
novel. 

Rome  [rom],  /.,  Rome. 

rompre  [ro:pr],  to  break,  tear. 

rend  [ro],  round. 

rende  [ro:d],  /.,  round,  round 
hand. 

rose  [ro:z],  /.,  rose. 

roucouler  [rukule],  to  coo. 

Rouen  [rwu],  Rouen. 


234 


VOCABULARY 


rouge    [ru:3],   red;  vetu  de  — , 

dressed  in  red. 
rougir  [ru3i:r],  to  grow  red,  blush, 

make  red. 
Roussillon  [rusijo],  m.,  Roussil- 

lon,     province     of     Southern 

France. 
route  [rut],  /.,  road,  way;  en  — ! 

start! 
royal  [rwayal],  royal, 
royaume  [rwajo:m],  m.,  kingdom, 
nie  [ry],  /.,  street. 
miner  [rqine],  to  ruin, 
ruse  [ryze],  cunning,  tricky. 
russe  [rys],  Russian. 
Russie  [rysi],  /.,  Russia, 
rustique  [rystik],  rustic. 


sacrer  [sakre],  to  anoint,  conse- 
crate. 

sage  [sa:3],  wise,  good. 

saint  [se],  holy. 

Sainte-Helene  [seitelen],  St. 
Helena,  island  west  of  Africa. 

saisir  [sEziir],  to  seize,  catch. 

salle  [sal],/.,  hall,  large  room;  — 
a  manger,  dining-room;  — 
d'attente,  waiting-room. 

samedi  [samdi],  vi.,  Saturday. 

sang  [sa],  m.,  blood; froid,  m., 

coolness. 

sanglant  [sugla],  bloody. 

sans  [sa],  without;  —  que,  conj., 
without. 

sante  [sate],  /.,  health. 

Sarre  [sar], /.,  Sarre  (river). 

satire  [sati:r],  /.,  satire. 

satisfait  [satisfe],  satisfied,  con- 
tented. 

sauter  [sote],  to  jump,  leap. 

sauver  [sove],  to  save;  se  — ,  to 
run  away,  escape. 


savant  [sava],  m.,  scholar, 
learned  man,  scientist. 

savoir  [savwa:r],  m.,  knowledge, 
wisdom. 

savoir  [savwair],  irr.,  to  know, 
be  able;  je  ne  saurais  vous  le 
dire,  I  can't  tell  you;  il  le  sut 
trop  tard,  he  learned  it  too 
late;  —  gre,  to  be  grateful. 

Saxe  [saks],  /.,  Saxony. 

scandaleux,  -se  [skadalo,  -oiz], 
scandalous. 

scelerat  [sclera],  m.,  villain. 

scierie  [siri],  /.,  saw-mill. 

sculpteiu-  [skyltoeir],  m.,  sculp- 
tor. 

se  [sa],  himself,  herself,  itself, 
themselves,  oneself. 

sec,  seche  [sek,  se^],  dry. 

sechement  [se^ma],  dryly. 

second  [sogo],  second. 

seconde  [sago:d],  /.,  second. 

secours  [sakuir],  m.,  help,  aid. 

secret,  -ete  [sakre,  -kret],  secret. 

seigneur  [sejioeir],  m.,  lord. 

seize  [.seiz],  sixteen. 

selon  [sals],  according  to. 

semaine  [samen],  /.,  week. 

sembler  [scible],  to  seem,  appear; 
ce  me  semble,  it  seems  to  me, 
I  think. 

semer  [same],  to  sow,  plant. 

sentier  [satje],  m.,  path. 

sentiment  [satimu],  nt.,  senti- 
ment, feeling. 

sentir  [sdti:r],  irr.,  see  dormir,  to 
feel,  smell;  —  bon,  to  smell 
sweet. 

separer  [separe],  to  separate;  se 
— ,  to  adjourn. 

sept  [set],  seven. 

septembre  [septa :br],  jn.,  Sep- 
tember. 

serai  [sare],  see  etre. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


235 


sergent  de  ville  [sersa  da  vil],  m., 

policeman. 
serieux  [serjo],  serious,  severe. 
sermon  [sermS],  m.,  sermon, 
serrer    [sere],    to    press,    clasp; 

serre,  steady,  regular, 
servante  [servait],  /.,  servant. 
service  [servis],  m.,  service, 
servir  [serviir],  to  serve;  se  — 

de,  to  use. 
serviteur  [servitoerr],  m.,  servant. 
seiiil  [soe:j],  w.,  sill,  threshold, 
seul    [sceI],    single,    sole,    only, 

alone. 
seulement  [soelma],  only, 
severe  [seveir],  stern. 
si  [si],  if,  whether, 
si  [si],  so;  yes;  —  fait,  yes  indeed; 

—  bien  que,  so  "that. 
siecle  [sjekl],  m.,  century. 
sien  [sje],  his,  hers, 
sieste  [sjest],  /.,  nap,  siesta. 
siffler  [sifie],  to  whistle. 
signe  [siji],  m.,  sign. 
signer  [sijie],  to  sign. 
silence  [silais],  m.,  silence, 
silencieux  [silasjoe],  silent. 
Simon  [simo],  m.,  Simon. 
sincerite  [seserite],  /.,  sincerity, 
singe  [se:3],  w?.,  monkey, 
six  [sis],  six. 
societe    [sosjete],    /.,    company, 

society. 
sceur  [soeir],  /.,  sister. 
soi  [swa],  oneself,  himself, 
soie  [swa],  /.,  silk, 
soif  [swaf],  /.,  thirst;  avoir  — ,  to 

be  thirsty. 
soir  [swa:r],  m.,  evening, 
sois  [swa],  see  etre. 
soit  [swa];  —  ...  — ,  either  .  .  . 

or;  ainsi  —  il!  so  be  it!;  see 

etre. 
soixante  [swasa:t],  sixty. 


soldat  [solda],  m.,  soldier, 
soleil  [soleij],  m.,  sun. 
solennel  [solanel],  solemn, 
solide  [solid],  strong. 
Soliman  [solima],  m.,  Soliman. 
sollicitude   [solisityd],  /.,  tender 

interest,  solicitude. 
somme  [sam],  /.,  sum;  en  — ,  in 

short. 
sommer  [some],  to  summon,  call 

upon, 
sommes  [som],  see  etre. 
son,  sa,  ses  [so,  sa,  se],  his,  her, 

its. 
songer  [sose],  to  think,  dream, 

meditate. 
sent  [so],  see  etre. 
sorte  [sort],  /.,  sort,  kind;  de  — 

que,  so  that. 
sortie  [sorti],  /.,  exit. 
sortir  [sorti:r],  irr.,  see  dormir,  to 

go  out. 
sot,  -te  [so,  sot],  silly,  foolish. 
sou  [su],  m.,  cent,  penny. 
souflfrance  [sufrdis],  /.,  suffering. 
souffrir  [sufriir],  irr.,  see  courir, 

to  suffer. 
souhaiter  [swete],  to  wish. 
soulever  (se) ,  [sa  sulve]  to  arise. 
Soulier  [sulje],  m.,  shoe. 
soumettre     [sumetr],     irr.,     see 

mettre,  to  submit. 
soupfonneux,       -se       [supsono, 

-0:z],  suspicious. 
source  [surs],  /.,  spring,  brook, 
sourd  [su:r],  deaf. 
sourd-muet  [surmqe],  deaf  and 

dumb. 
sourire  [siiriir],  irr.,  see  rire,  to 

smile. 
souris  [suri],  /.,  mouse, 
sous  [su],  under, 
•soutenir  [sutniir],  irr.,  see  tenir, 

to  sustain,  maintain. 


236 


VOCABULARY 


souvenir  [suvniir],  se  —  de,  to 

remember. 
sou  vent  [suva],  often. 
souverain  [suvrt],  m.,  sovereign, 
souverainete  [suvrente],  /.,  sov- 
ereignty. 
soyez  [swaje],  see  etre. 
special  [spesjal],  special, 
store  [stjir],  7n.,  window  shade, 

curtain  (to  roll  on  fixture). 
studieux,     -se     [stydjo,     -0:z], 

studious. 
succeder-  [syk.sede],  to  succeed, 

follow. 
successeur  [syksesa?:r],  m.,  suc- 
cessor. 
successivement        [sykscsivmci], 

successively,  in  turn. 
Sucre  [sykr],  ?n.,  sugar. 
suffire  [syfi:r],  irr.,  to  be  enough. 
sufiisamment     [syfizama],     suf- 
ficiently. 
Suisse  [sqis],  Swiss. 
Suisse  [sqisj,  /.,  Switzerland. 
Suissesse  [sqLses],  /.,  Swiss  girl, 
suite  [sqit],/.,  successive;  tout  de 
— ,  at  once,  immediately;  a  sa 
— ,  after  him  or  her. 
suivant    [sijivd],    following,    ac- 
cording to. 
suivre  [sqiivr],  irr.,  to  follow, 
sujet  [syse],  vi.,  subject. 
Sully  [syli],  m.,  Sully,  minister  of 

Henry  IV. 
sultan  [sjdtu],  m.,  sultan, 
superieur    [syperjoeir],    superior, 

upper. 
supplier  [sj^pUe],  to  beseech, 
supprimer  [syprime],  to  suppress. 
sur  [sy:r],  sure. 
sur  [syr],  on,  upon,  by,  about,  in. 

§219. 
surprendre   [syrpra:dr],  irr.,  se& 
prendre,  to  surprise. 


surtout  [syrtu],  especially, 
suspendre  [syspa:dr],  to  suspend, 

hang;  suspendu,  hanging. 
syllabe  [silab],  /.,  syllable. 


table  [table],  /.,  table. 

tableau  [tablo],  m.,  picture;  — 

(noir),  blackboard. 
tacher  ita:|Je],  to  try. 
taire  [te:r],  irr.;  se  — ,  to  keep 

silent. 
talon  [talo],  m.,  heel;  toumer  les 

— s,  to  face  about, 
tandis  que  [tadi(s)  kg],  while, 
tant  [ta],  so  much,  so  many;  — 

que,  as  long  as. 
tante  [ta:t],  /.,  aunt. 
tapage  [tapa:3],  m.,  noise,  racket, 

tumult. 
taper  [tape],  to  hit,  pound,  strike, 

tap. 
tapis    [tapi],    m.,    carpet,    table- 
cloth, tapestry. 
tard  [ta:r],  late. 
tasse  [ta:s],  /.,  cup. 
taureau  [toro],  7n.,  bull, 
te  [ta],  thee,  you,  to  thee,  to  you, 

for  thee,  for  you. 
tel,  -le  [tel],  such,  like;  M.  un — , 

Mr.  So  and  So;  —  quel,  just  as 
Jtis.     §89/. 
temoin     [temwe],    m.,    witness; 

prendre  a  — ,  to  appeal,  call 

someone  to  witness. 
temps   [ta],    m.,   time,   weather; 

quel  —  fait-il,   what  sort  of 

weather  is  it;  faire  beau  — ,  to 

be  fine  weather. 
tenir  [taniir],  irr.,  to  hold;  —  a, 

to  insist  on,  depend  on;  tenez! 

here!;  se  —  debout,  to  stand; 

—  de,  to  take  after. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


237 


tenter  [tate],  to  tempt, 
terre    [te:r],   /.,    ground,    earth; 
s'asseoir  a  — ,  to  sit  on  the 
ground. 
terrexir    [tera^ir],   /.,    terror;    La 
Terreur,  the  Reign  of  Terror, 
terrible    [terribl],    terrible,    fear- 
ful. 
territoire    [teritwair],    m.,    terri- 
tory. 
tete  [teit],  /.,  head. 
the  [te],  m.,  tea. 
tien  [tjc],  thine,  yours, 
tiers,  tierce  [tjc:r,  tjcrs],  third, 
tige  [ti:3],  /.,  stem,  trunk,  stalk, 
tigre,  -sse  [tigr,  -gres],  tiger. 
titer  [tire],  to  draw,  fire. 
tiroir  [tirwa:r],  rn.,  drawer, 
titre  [titr],  to.,  title, 
toi  [twa],  thee,  you,  to  thee,  for 

thee,  to  you,  for  you. 
toit  [twa],  m.,  roof. 
toiture  [twatyir],  J.,  roof,  entire 

roof,  including  gables,  etc. 
tomber  [t5be],  to  fall;  conj.,  xvith 

etre. 
ton,  ta,  tes  [t5,  ta,  te],  thy,  your. 
tordre  [tordr],  to  twist. 
tort  [to:r],  m.,  wrong. 
t6t  [to],  soon. 

toucher  [tu^e],  to  touch;  —  a,  to 
touch,   reach,   interfere  with, 
injure. 
toujours  [tu3u:r],  always,  still. 
Toulon  [tulo],  m.,  Toulon,  city  of 

Southern  France, 
toupie  [tupi],  /.,  top. 
tour  [tu:r],  /.,  tower. 
tour  [tu:r],  m.,  turn,  stroll,  trip. 
toumer  [turne],  to  turn,  twist. 
tout,  m.  pi.  tous  [tu,  tu(s)],  all, 
any,  every,  quite,  everything; 
—  le  monde,  everyone;  — e  la 
ville,  the  whole  city;  tous  les 


jours,  every  day;  —  a  fait, 
completely;  —  a  I'heure,  soon, 
recently;  —  a  coup,  suddenly; 
rien    du    — ,    nothing    at    all. 

§  m- 

toux  [tu],  /.,  cough. 

tracer  [trase],  to  trace,  draw. 

traduire  [tradqiir],  irr.,  see  con- 

duire,  to  translate. 
tragedie  [trasedi], /.,  tragedy. 
train  [tre],  rn.,  train;  confusion, 

uproar;  en  —  de,  in  the  act  of. 
trait  [tre],  hi.,  arrow,  shaft. 
trajet  [trase],  to.,  trip,  distance, 
tranquille  [trakil],  quiet,  peace- 
ful, tranquil, 
travail    [travciij],   7n.,   work;  pi. 

travaux,  labors. 
travailler  [travaje],  to  work,  toil, 

labor,  study. 
travers  [traveir],  m.,  width;  a  — , 

across;  en  —  de,  across. 
traverser     [traverse],     to     pass 

through,  pass  over. 
treize  [tre:z],  thirteen, 
trembler  [trable],  to  tremble, 
trente  [trait],  thirty. 
tribu  [triby],  /.,  tribe. 
tricorne  [trikorn],  ?/;.,  cocked  hat, 

three-cornered  hat. 
tringle  [treigi],  /.,  rod,  frame, 
triomphe  [trijif],  m.,  triumph, 
triste  [trist],  sad. 
trois  [trwa],  three. 
troisieme  [trwasjem],  third. 
tromper   [trope],  to  deceive;  se 

— ,  to  mistake. 
trompette   [tropet],  /.,  trumpet; 

m.,  trumpeter. 
trompeur,  -euse  [tropoeir,  -o:z], 

deceptive. 
trop  [tr,i],  too,  too  much, 
trottiner  [trotine],  to  trot. 
trouble  [trubl],  to.,  confusion.    . 


238 


VOCABULARY 


troupe  [trup],  /.,  band,  troop, 
troupeau  [trupo],  7n.,  flock,  herd, 
trouver  [truve],  to  find,  think;  se 

— ,  to  be. 
truite  [trqit],  /.,  trout, 
tsar,  tsarine  [tsa:r,  tsarin],  tsar, 

tsarine. 
tu  [ty],  thou,  you  {to  a  child,  an 

intimate  friend,  or  an  animal) . 
tuer  [tqe],  to  kill. 
tuilerie    [tt[ilori],  /.,    tile-works; 

Les  Tuileries,Tuileries  Palace. 
turc,  turque  [tyrk],  Turkish. 


U 

un,  une  [ce,  yn],  one,  a,  an;  1' — 
et  I'autre,  both;  1' —  ou  I'autre, 
either.     §  88. 

unique  [ynik],  only. 

usage  [yzaij],  m.,  use,  wear. 

utile  [ytil],  useful. 


va  [va],  see  aller;  —  pour  N.,  I'll 
take  N.;  N.  will  do. 

vache  [va^],  /.,  cow. 

vaillanunent  [vajama],  bravely, 
valiantly. 

vaillant  [vaja],  valiant,  brave. 

vaincre  [ve:kr],  irr.,  to  vanquish, 
conquer. 

vainqueur  [vekoeir],  m.,  victor, 
conqueror. 

vais  [ve],  see  aller. 

vaisseau  [veso],  m.,  vessel,  man- 
of-war. 

vallee  [vale],  /.,  valley. 

valoir  [valwair],  irr.,  to  be  worth; 
—  bien,  to  be  as  good  as;  — 
mieux,  to  be  better;  autant 
vaut,  as  well. 


vanter  [vote],  to  praise;  se  — , 

to  boast,  brag. 
Vaud  [vo],  m.,  Vaud,  Swiss  can- 
ton, capital  Lausanne, 
vautrer  [votre],  to  wallow,  roll, 
vehement    [veenid],    vehement; 

— ement,  vehemently. 
vendeur,  -se  [vcidtvir,  -oiz],  seller, 

vender. 
vendre   [va:dr],   to  sell;  vendu, 

bribed. 
vendredi  [vadrodi],  m.,  Friday. 
venir  [vaniir],  irr.,  see  tenir,  to 

come;  —  faire,  to  come  and 

do;  —  a  faire,  to  happen  to  do; 

—  de  faire,  to  have  just  done, 
vent  [vci],  m.,  wind, 
ver  [vsir],  m.,  worm;  —  a  sole, 

silk-worm. 
verbe  [verb],  m.,  verb. 
verdure  [verdy:r],  /.,  verdure, 
vergue  [verg],  /.,  yard. 
verite  [verite],  /.,  truth. 
vermeil,  -le  [v8rme:j],  vermilion, 

bright  red. 
verre  [ve:r],  m.,  glass. 
vers  [veir],  m.,  verse. 
vers  [veir],  toward. 
Versailles  [versa: j],  /.,  Versailles, 
verser  [verse],  to  turn  out,  pour 

out. 
vert  [ve:r],  green, 
vertigineux,  -se  [vertisino,  -0:z], 

dizzy,  giddy. 
vertu  [verty],  /.,  virtue,  valor, 
vestale  [vestal],  /.,  vestal,  virgin, 
veste  [vest],/.,  jacket,  short  coat. 
vetir  [vet  i:r],  irr.,  to  clothe,  dress. 
veuf  [va'f],  m.,  widower. 
veuillez      [vocje],     see     vouloir, 

please,  have  the  kindness  to. 
veuve  [voe:v],  /.,  widow. 
veux  [vo],  see  vouloir. 
viande  [vja:d], /.,  meat. 


FRENCH-ENGLISH 


239 


victoire  [viktwair],  /.,  victory. 

vide  [vid],  empty,  unoccupied, 
void. 

vie  [vi],  /.,  life. 

vieil  [vJ8:j],  see  vieux. 

vieillesse  [vjejes],  /.,  old  age. 

vieillir  [vjei:r],  to  grow  old. 

vieux,  vieil,  vieille  [vjo,  vje:j], 
old,  aged. 

vif,  -ve  [vif,  vi:v],  lively,  quick. 

vilain  [vile],  homely. 

village  [vilais],  /«.,  village. 

ville  [vil],  /.,  city,  town. 

vin  [ve],  m.,  wine. 

vingt  [ve],  twenty. 

vint  [ve],  see  venir. 

vis  [vis],  /.,  screw. 

vis-a-vis  [vizavi] ;  —  de,  opposite. 

visage  [vizais],  m.,  face. 

visite  [vizit],  /.,  visit;  faire  —  a, 
to  visit,  pay  a  visit  to. 

vite  [vit],  fast,  quickly. 

vivement  [vivma],  quickly,  vigor- 
ously. 

vivre  [vi:\T],  irr.,  to  live;  vive  le 
roi!  long  live  the  king;  vive 
Henri!  hurrah  for  Henry!  qui 
vive?  who  goes  there?  {sentry's 
challenge). 

voici  [vwasi],  see  here,  here  is, 
here  are,  this  is. 

voila  [vwala],  behold,  see  there, 
there  is  (are),  that  is  (are);  — 
quinze  ans,  for  fifteen  years. 

voir  [\T\'a:r],  irr.,  to  see;  faire  — , 
to  show;  se  — ,  to  be  seen, 
occur. 

voisin  [vwaze],  m.,  neighbor. 

voisin  [vwaze],  adj.,  neighboring. 


voiture  [vwaty:r],  /.,  carriage. 

voix  [vwa],  /.,  voice;  a  haute  — , 
aloud. 

vol  [v.il],  /?;.,  flight;  au  — ,  on  the 

fly- 
volet  [vole],  tn.,  wooden  shutter, 
blind. 

voleur  [voloeir],  m.,  thief. 

volonte  [volote],  /.,  will. 

volontiers  [volotje],  willingly, 
gladly. 

volte-face  [voltfas],  /.;  faire  — , 
to  turn  about. 

vont  [v5],  see  aller. 

voter  [vote],  to  vote. 

votre,  pi.  vos  [votr,  vo],  your. 

votre  [vo:tr],  yours. 

vouloir  [vulwair],  irr.,  to  will, 
wish,  try;  —  bien,  to  be  will- 
ing; —  dire,  to  mean;  en  —  a, 
to  be  vexed  with. 

vous  [vu],  you. 

voyage  [vwajais],  m.,  journey. 

voyageur  [i-wajasoeir],  m.,  trav- 
eler, passenger. 

vrai  [vre],  true;  — ment,  truly. 

vu  [vy],  see  voir. 

vue  [vy],  /.,  sight. 


W 
Wachter  [va^teir],  Wachter, 


y  [i],  there,  to  it,  at  it,  in  it,  of  it; 

il  —  a,  there  is,  there  are. 
yeux  [jo],  pi.  of  ceil. 


VOCABULARY 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


a,  an,  un;  —  franc  —  dozen,  un 

franc  la  douzaine. 
abbot,  abbe,  m. 
able,  capable;  be  —,  pouvoir. 
abolish,  abolir. 
abominable,  abominable. 
about,   de,   autour  de,   environ, 

sur;    —   it,    en;    set    — ,    se 

mettre  a. 
absent,  absent. 
absolute,  absolu. 
abuse,  abuser. 

abyss,  gouffre,  m.,  abime,  m. 
accept,  accepter. 
according  to,  selon. 
account ;  on  —  of,  a  cause  de. 
accurse,  maudire. 
acquaintance,  connaissance,  /. 
across,  a  travers. 
act,  acte,  m. 
act,  agir. 
add,  ajouter. 
admirable,  admirable, 
admire,  admirer. 
advice,  avis,  m.,  conseil,  m. 
advise,  conseiller. 
affectionate,     affectueux,     affec- 

tionne. 
afraid;  to  be  —  (of),  avoir  peur 

(de),  craindre;  —  of,  effraye 

de;   to  be  much  —  {  =  to  be 

in   great  fear),   avoir   grand'- 

peur. 


after,  prep,  and  adv.,  apres. 

after,  conj.,  apres  que. 

again,   encore,   encore  une  fois, 

de  nouveau. 
against,  centre. 
Agincourt,  Azincourt,  m. 
ago,  il  y  a;  two  months  — ,   il 

y  a  deux  mois. 
agony,  angoisse,  /. 
aid,  aide,  /.,  secours,  m.,  assist- 
ance, /. 
aid,  aider,  secourir,  assister. 
air,  air,  m. 
all,  tout;  not  at  — ,  pas  du  tout; 

—  at  once,   tout  d'un  coup, 

tout  a  coup. 
allow,  laisser,  permettre. 
almost,  presque. 
aloud,  haut,  a  haute  voix. 
already,  deja. 
Alsatia,  Alsace,  /. 
also,  au.ssi. 

although,  bien  que,  quoique. 
altitude,  altitude,  /. 
always,  toujours. 
amid,  au  milieu, 
among,  parmi,  entre,  chez. 
amphitheater,  cirque,  m. 
ancient,  ancien,  antique. 
and,    et;    to   go   —   visit,    aller 

visiter. 
angry,  irrite,  fache,  furieux. 
animal,  animal,  m. 
another,    un    autre,    une   autre; 

one  — ,  I'un  I'autre. 


240 


ENGLISH-I^RENCH 


241 


answer,  reponse,  /. 

answer,  repondre. 

anxiety,  sollicitude,  /. 

any,  de+def.  art.,de;  en;  aucun, 
quelconque,  tout; — thing  {with 
neg.),  rien;  — one  (mth  neg.), 
personne. 

anyone,  quelqu'  un. 

anything,  quelque  chose,  m., 
not  — ,  ne  .  .  .  rien. 

appeal  (to),  invoquer. 

appear,  paraitre,  sembler,  com- 
paraitre. 

apple,  pomme,  /. 

apple-tree,  pommier,  m. 

apply,  appliquer;  —  oneself, 
s'appliquer. 

apprentice,  apprenti,  m. 

approach,  approche,  /. 

approach,  approcher,  s'appro- 
cher  de. 

approval,  approbation,  /. 

archbishop,  archeveque,  m. 

army,  armee,  /. 

around,  autour  de. 

arrest,  arreter,  saisir. 

arrival,  arrivee,  /. 

artist,  artiste,  m. 

as,  comme;  aussi,  si;  pendant 
que,  en;  —  .  .  .  — ,  aussi 
.  .  .  que;  —  long  — ,  tant 
que;  —  soon  — ,  aussi  tot  que; 
—  if,  comme  si;  —  well  — , 
aussi  bien  que;  —  to,  quant  a. 

ascent,  ascension,  /. 

ask,  demander,  prier;  — '-  for, 
demander;  — ■  oneself,  se  de- 
mander; —  (a  question),  faire, 
poser. 

asleep,  endormi;  be  — ,  etre  en- 
dormi,  dormir;  fall  — -,  s'en- 
dormir. 

assembly,  assemblee,  /. 

assistance,  secours,  m. 


assume,  assumer,  prendre  siir 
soi,  s'arroger,  se  faire. 

astonish,  etonner,  surprendre. 

at,  a,  chez,  de;  —  the  house  of, 
chez;  —  home,  chez  moi,  chez 
toi,  etc.;  —  my  house,  cliez 
moi;  —  oiu-  house,  chez  nous. 

attention,  attention,  /.;  pay  — , 
give  — ,  faire  attention. 

attentive,  attentif. 

aunt,  tante,  /. 

Austria,  Autriche,  /. 

Austrian,  Autrichien,  m. 

author,  ecrivain,  m.,  auteur,  m. 

avoid,  eviter. 

awake,  tr.,  eveiller,  reveiller; 
inlr.,  s'eveiller,  se  reveiller. 


B 

back,  dos,  m.;  at  the  —  of,  au 
fond  de;  give  — ,  rendre; 
come  — ,  revenir;  go  — ,  re- 
toumer. 

bad,  mauvais,  mechant. 

balance,  equilibre,  m. 

ball,  balle,  /.,  boule,  /.,  pe- 
lote,  /. 

bank,  banque,  /. 

bankrupt;  to  be  — ,  faire  ban- 
queroute. 

bar,  barrer. 

barbarian,  barbare,  m. 

bark,  aboyer. 

barking,  aboiement,  m. 

BastUe,  Bastille,  /. 

battle,  bataille,  /. 

be,  etre,  y  avoir,  se  trouver;  — 
about  to,  aller;  —  (0/  health), 
se  porter,  aller;  —  bom,  naitre; 
—  {of  weather),  faire;  ^  {of 
age),  avoir;  —  {of  time),  y 
avoir;  —  afraid,  avoir  peur. 

beat,  battre. 


242 


VOCABULARY 


beautiful,  beau. 

beauty,  beaute,  /. 

because,  parce  que. 

become,    devenir,    se    faire;    — 

{  =  suit),  seoir,  aller. 
bed,  lit,  7n. 
before,   prep.,    avant   (of  time); 

devant    (of  place);    avant  de 

+  infiri. 
before,  conj.,  avant  que. 
before,  adv.,  auparavant. 
beg,  prier. 

begin,  commencer,  se  mettre  a. 
beginning,  commencement,  m. 
behind,  derriere. 
believe,    croire;    it   is    believed, 

on  croit. 
bench,  banc,  m. 
Berlin,  Berlin,  rn. 
berry,  bale,/.;  pi.,  petits  fruits, 
best,  adj.,  le  meilleiu-. 
best,  adv.,  le  mieux. 
better,  adj.,  meilleiu". 
better,  adv.,  mieux;  be  —  {  =  be 

worth    ?tiore),     valoir    mieux; 

be  —    {of   health),   se    porter 

mieux,    aller   mieux;    like   — 

{  =  prefer),  aimer  mieux. 
between,  entre. 
big,  gros. 

bind,  lier,  obliger;  relier. 
bird,  oiseau,  m. 
bishop,  6veque,  m. 
black,  noir. 
blackbird,  merle,  m. 
blacksmith,  forgeron,  m. 
blame,  blame,  m.;  to  be  to  — , 

etre  en  faute. 
blame,  blamer,  reprendre. 
blond,  blonde,  /. 
bloom,  fleurir. 
blue,  bleu. 
board,  tableau,  m. 
boat,  bateau,  m.,  barque,  /. 


body,  corps,  m. 

book,  livre,  ??i. 

bom ;  to  be  — ,  naitre. 

both,  tous  (les)  deux,  I'un  et 
I'autre;  —  ...  and,  et  .  .  .  et. 

bound;  to  be  —  {  =  to  in.'iist  on), 
tenir  a;  —  {of  books)  relie. 

bower,  berceau  de  verdure,  m., 
salle  de  verdure,  /. 

bowl,  jatte,  /. 

box,  boite,  /. 

boy,  enfant,  m.,  gargon,  m. 

bread,  pain,  7n. 

break,  casser,  rompre;  —  out, 
eclater;  —  off,  casser,  oter;  — 
up,  se  dissoudre;  —  in,  enf on- 
cer. 

breath,  souffle,  m.;  out  of  — , 
essouffle. 

breathe,  respirer. 

bribe ;  to  take  a  — ,  se  vendre. 

bright,  clair. 

bring,  apporter;  {  =  carry)  trans- 
porter; {  =  lead)  amener;  — 
back,  ramener;  —  down,  des- 
cendre;  —  up  {  =  rear),  elever. 

brother,  frere,  tn. 

bnmette,  brunette,  /. 

build,  construire,  batir. 

bulletin-board,  grillage  aux  af- 
fiches,  m. 

bum,  brdler. 

burst  out,  eclater;  —  laughing, 
Eclater  de  rire. 

business,  metier,  commerce,  m.; 
affaires,  /.  pi. 

busy,  occupe,  en  train  de. 

but,  mais;  nothing  — ,  ne  .  .  . 
rien  .  .  .  que;  —  few,  ne  .  .  . 
guere. 

butter,  beurre,  to. 

buy,  acheter. 

by,  par,  de,  sur,  a,  en;  go  — , 
-  sight,  de  vue. 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


243 


Calais,  Calais,  m. 

caldron,  chaudron,  rn. 

call,    appeler;    faire    venir;    be 

— ed,  s'appeler. 
calm,  calme,  ?«. 
calm,  calme,  tranquille. 
calm,    calmer;    become    — ,    se 

calmer,  s'apaiser. 
can,  pouvoir,  savoir. 
canton,  canton,  m. 
cap,   casquette,  /.,   bonnet,   m., 

chapeau,  m. 
capture,  prendre. 
cardinal,  cardinal,  m. 
care;  take  — ,  prendre  garde;  — 

for,  soigner;  take  —  of,  avoir 

soin  de. 
carefully,    soigneusement,    avec 

soin. 
carnation,  oeillet,  m. 
carriage,  voiture,  /. 
carry,  porter;  —  off,  emporter. 
cascade,  cascade,  /. 
cat,  chat,  m. 

catch,  attraper,  saisir,  prendre. 
celebrated,  celebre. 
cent,  sou,  to. 
certain,  certain. 
chair,  chaise,  /. 
chalk,  craie,  /. 

change,  changer,  changer  de. 
chant,  chanter. 
cheese,  fromage,  7n. 
cherry-tree,  cerisier,  to. 
child,  enfant,  to.  and  f. 
choose,  choisir. 
Christmas,  Noel,  to. 
citizen,   citoyen,   to.,   bourgeois, 

TO. 

city,  ville,  /. ;  in  the  — ,  a  la  ville, 

en  ville. 
civil,  civil. 


clasp,  embrasser. 

class,  classe, /. 

clean,  nettoyer. 

clear,  clair,  net,  leger. 

clergy,  clerge,  m. 

climb,  grimper. 

close,  clos,  f erme ;  —  to,  pres  de. 

close,  fermer,  clore. 

clothes,  vetements,  habits,  ?m.  pi. 

coast,  cote,  /. 

coffee,  cafe,  to. 

cold,  froid;  be  —  {of  living  be- 
ings), avoir  froid;  be  —  (of 
weather),  faire  froid;  catch  (a) 
— ,  s'enrhumer. 

colonnade,  colonnade,  /. 

color,  couleur,  /.,  teint,  m. 

come,  venir,  arriver;  — •  back, 
revenir;  —  again,  revenir;  — 
to  see,  —  and  see,  venir  voir; 
—  down,  descendre;  —  up, 
monter;  — •  in,  entrer;  —  out, 
sortir;  — !  voyons!  allons! 

comedy,  comedie,  /. 

command,  commandement,  to. 

command,  commander. 

comedy,  comedie,  /. 

company,  compagnie,  /. 

compose,  composer. 

comrade,  camarade,  to. 

condemn,  condamner. 

condition,  condition,  /. 

conduct,  conduite, /. 

conduct,  conduire,  mener. 

confidence,  confiance,  /. 

confident,  assure. 

conquer,  vaincre,  conquerir. 

conqueror,  vainqueur,  to,. 

conscientiously,  consciencieuse- 
ment. 

constitution,  constitution,  /. 

construct,  construire,  batir. 

convention,  assemblee,  /.,  con- 
vention, /. 


244 


VOCABULARY 


convict,  format,  m. 

cool,  frais;  it  is  — ,  il  fait  frais. 

coolness,  fraicheur,  /. ;  with  — , 

de  sang-froid. 
copy,  copier. 

correct,  amender,  corriger. 
cost,  colater. 
costume,  costume,  m. 
cottage,  chalet,  m.,  nfaisonnette,/. 
cotton,  coton,  m. 
count,  compter. 
country,  pays,  m.;    (as   opposed 

to    town),    campagne,    /.;    ^ 

{  =  native     land),     patrie,    /.; 

in  the  — ,  a  la  campagne. 
courage,   courage,   in.;  take  — , 

prendre  courage. 
court,  cour,  /.,  salle,  /. 
courtyard,  cour,  /. 
cousin,  cousin,  m.,  cousine,  /. 
crazy,  fou. 
cross,  traverser. 
crowd,  foule,  /. 
cruelty,  cruaute,  /. 
crush,  ecraser. 
cry,  cri,  m. 

cry,  pleurer,  crier;  —  out,  crier. 
cup,  tasse,  /.,  coupe,  /. 
cupboard,  armoire,  /. 
curly,  frise. 
curse,  maudire. 
custom,  coutume,  /. 


danger,  danger,  m. 

dare,  oscr. 

darling,  mignon. 

day,  jour,  m.,  journee,  /.;  every 
— ,  tous  les  jours,  chaque 
jour;  the  —  before  yesterday, 
avant-hier;  the  —  after  to- 
morrow, apres-demain. 

dead,  mort. 


deaf,  sourd;  turn  a  —  ear,  faire 

la  sourde  oreille. 
dear,  cher,  cheri. 
death,     mort,    /.;    put    to    — , 

mettre  a  mort. 
decision,  decision,  /.,  parti,  m. 
declare,  declarer. 
defend,  defendre,  proteger. 
delay,  retard,  m. 
deUberate,  deliberer. 
dehghtful,  delicieux. 
demand,  demander. 
depart,  partir. 
depot,  gare,  /. 
deputy,  depute,  m. 
desire,  desirer,  vouloir. 
desk,  pupitre,  bureau,  m. 
despise,  dedaigner,  mepriscr. 
despoil,  depouiller,  priver. 
detain,  detenir,  retenir. 
detest,  detester. 
detestable,  detestable. 
devoted,  devoue. 
dictation,  dictee,  /. 
die,  mourir;  —  away,  se  mourir. 
different,  different. 
dinner,  diner,  ni. 
direction,  direction,  /. 
disaster,  desastre,  m. 
discipline,  discipline,  /. 
discipline,  discipliner. 
discuss,  discuter. 
displease,  deplaire. 
dispose,  disposer. 
divers,  divers,  plusieurs. 
do,     faire;    —     (0/   health),    se 

porter;  —  without,  se  passer 

de. 
dog,  chien,  m.,  chienne,  /. 
dollar,  dollar,  ni.,  piastre,  /. 
dominate,  dominer. 
door,  porte,  /.;  next  — ,  a  cote. 
doubt,   doute,   w.;  no  — ,   sans 

doute. 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


245 


doubt,  douter. 

drawer,  tiroir,  m. 

dread,  craindre,  redouter. 

dress  (in),  vetir  (de);  well  — ed, 

bien  mis. 
drink,  boire. 
driver,  cocher,  m. 
drop,  goutte,  /. 
drop,  Jeter,  laisser  tomber. 
duke,  due,  m. 
dummy,  mannequin,  m. 
during,  pendant, 
dusty,  poudreux. 
duty,  devoir,  ?«. 


E 

each,  chaque,  tout. 

each  one,  chacun. 

each    other,    reflex,    pron.    pi., 

nous,    vous,    se;    indef.,    Tun 

I'autre,  I'un  de  I'autre,  etc. 
eagerly,  ardemment,  avidement. 
ear,  oreille,  /. 
early,  de  bonne  heure. 
earn,  gagner. 
easily,  facilement. 
easy,  facile. 
eat,  manger, 
edge,  lisiere,  /.,  bord,  m. 
educated,  instruit. 
education,  instruction,  /. 
either.    Fun  ou   I'autre;    either 

.  .  .  or,  ou  .  .  .  ou,  soit  .  .  . 

soit. 
Elba,  Elbe,  /. 
elm,  orme,  m. 
emotion,  emotion,  /. 
emperor,  empereur,  m. 
end,  fin,  /.,  bout,  m. ;  at  the  —  of, 

au  bout  de. 
enemy,  ennemi,  7n. 
England,  Angleterre,  /. 
English,    anglais;    —    (the    lan- 


guage), I'anglais,  anglais,  m.; 
— man.  Anglais,  m. 

enjoy,  jouir  de;  —  oneself, 
s'amuser. 

enough,  assez  (de);  not  — ,  pas 
assez;  kind  — ,  assez  bon. 

enrich,  enrichir,  embellir. 

enter,  entrer  (dans). 

equal,  egal. 

equal  {  =  be  —  to),  egaler. 

error,  faute,  /. 

estate,  etat,  m. 

Europe,  Europe,  /. 

even,  menie;  — -if,  —  though, 
quand  meme. 

evening,  soir,  m.,  soiree,  /.;  in 
the  — ,  le  soir;  last  — ,  yes- 
terday — ,  hier  (au)  soir. 

ever,  jamais. 

every,  tout,  chaque;  —  Simday, 
tous  les  dimanches,  — thing 
which,  tout  ce  qui;  —  other 
day,  tous  les  deux  jours. 

everybody,  tout  le  monde,  m. 

everyone,  chacun. 

everything,  tout,  m. 

evidently,  evidemment. 

exactly,  exactement,  precis6- 
ment;  —  ten,  dix  heures  pre- 
cises. 

example,  exemple,  m.;  for  — , 
par  exemple. 

excitement,  excitation,  /.,  agi- 
tation, /. 

exercise,  exercice,  w. 

exhaust,  epuiser. 

expect,  attendre,  s'attendre  (k), 
compter,  esp^rer. 

expend,  depenser. 

expensive,  couteux,  cher. 

express  (train),  express,  tn. 

expression,  expression,  /. 

eye,  oeil,  m.,  pi.  yeux;  regard, 
m. 


246 


VOCABULARY 


face,  figure,  /.,  visage,  7n. 

face  about,  se  touruer. 

fail,  faillir;  to  —  in,  manquer  a. 

failing,  faute,  /.,  defaut,  ?«. 

fair,  bon,  beau,  juste. 

fairy,  fee,  /. 

faithful,  fidele. 

fall,  tomber;  —  asleep,  s'en- 
dormir;  —  due,  6choir;  —  out, 
se  brouiller. 

familiar,  familier. 

family,  famille,  /. 

famous,  fameux. 

far,  loin;  —  away,  loin,  loin 
d'ici;  —  from,  loin  que,  loin 
de;  farther  oflf,  plus  loin;  far- 
ther on,  plus  loin;  as  —  as, 
jusqu'a;  how  —  is  it?  combien 
y  a-t-il? 

fast,  vite. 

father,  pere,  7n. 

fatherland,  patrie,  /.,  pays  na- 
tal, 711. 

fault,  faute,  /. 

fear,  crainte,  /.,  peur,  /.;  for  — 
that,  de  crainte  que;  for  —  of, 
de  crainte  de. 

fear,  craindre,  avoir  peur. 

fearless,  intrepide,  sans  crainte, 
sans  peur. 

feed,  nourrir. 

feel,  sentir;  to  —  like,  avoir 
envie  de. 

fellow,  gargon,  ???.;  Uttle  — , 
petit,  771. 

feudal,  feodal. 

few,  peu,  peu  de,  quelques;  a  — , 
quelques-uns;  but  — ,  ne  .  .  . 
guere,  ne  .  .  .  que  peu. 
field,  champ,  m. 
fifteen,  quinze. 
fifth,  cinquieme. 


fight,  combattre. 

fill,  remplir;  —  the  lungs  with, 

respirer  a  pleins  poumons. 
find,     trouver;     be     foimd,     se 

trouver;  —  out,  decouvrir. 
fine,  beau;  it  is  —  (weather),  il 
fait  beau  (temps). 

finish,  finir. 

first,  adj.,  premier. 

first,  adv.,  d'abord;  at  — , 
d'abord. 

fish,  poisson,  m. 

fish,  pecher. 

five,  cinq. 

flee,  fuir,  s'enfuir. 

flower,  fleur,  /. ;  in  — ,  en  fleurs. 

fog,  brouiUard,  m. 

follow,  suivre. 

foot,  pied,  m.,  patte,  /.;  on  — ,  k 
pied. 

foot-rope,  marchepied,  rti. 

for,  prep.,  pour,  pendant,  de, 
centre,  par;  —  {  =  during), 
pendant;  —  a  moment,  un 
moment;  —  i=si7ice),  depuis; 
—  a  long  time,  depuis  long- 
temps. 

for,  cotij.,  car. 

forbid,  defendre;  God  — ,  a  Dieu 
ne  plaise. 

force,  force,  /. 

force,  forcer,  obliger. 

foreigner,  etranger,  m. 

forever,  (pour)  toujours. 

forget,  oublier. 

forgive,  pardonner. 

formahty,  formalite,  forme,  /. 

former,  ancien;  the  — ,  celui-la. 

forty,  quarante. 

forward,  en  avant. 

four,  quatre. 

franc,  franc,  ?«. 

France,  France,  /.;  in  — ,  to  — , 
en  France. 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


247 


Francis,  Francois,  m. 

free,  libre. 

freeze,  geler. 

French,  frangais;  —  {the  lan- 
guage), le  frangais,  frangais; 
— man,  Frangais,  m. 

frequently,  fr^quemment,  sou- 
vent. 

fresh,  frais. 

friend,  ami,  m.,  amie,  /. 

friendship,  amitie,  /. 

fright,  effroi,  m.,  frayeur,  /. 

frighten,  eflfrayer;  to  be  — ed, 
avoir  peur,  s'effrayer. 

frock-coat,  reclingote,  /. 

frog,  grenouille,  /. 

from,  de,  a,  a  partir  de,  dans, 
d'apres,  depuis;  —  day  to 
day,  de  jour  en  jour;  —  it, 
—  there,  en. 

front;  in  —  of,  devant. 

full,  plein;  at  —  length,  tout  au 
long. 

fim ;  make  —  of,  se  moquer  de. 

furious,  furieux. 

further,  plus  loin. 


gaily,  gaiement. 

garden,  jardin,  m. 

Gaul,  Gaulois,  m. 

general,  general,  m. 

general,  general. 

gentle,  doux. 

gentleman,  monsieur,  m. 

gently,  doucement. 

German,  allemand;  (language), 
I'allemand,  allemand,  m.;  (per- 
son), Allemand,  m. 

Germany,  Allemagne,  /. 

get,  obtenir,  gagner,  avoir,  pren- 
dre; (  =  reach)  atteindre,  ar- 
river. 


give,  donner;  —  away,  donner; 

—  back,  rendre. 

glad;  —  at,  of,  content  de, 
charme  de. 

glance,  regard,  m. 

glove,  gant,  m. 

go,  aller,  se  rendre;  —  away,  s'en 
aller,  partir;  —  in,  —  into, 
entrer  dans;  —  out,  sortir;  — ■ 
with,  accompagner;  —  by,  — 
past,  passer  (devant);  —  up 
(stairs),  aller  en  haut,  monter; 

—  down  (stairs),  aller  en  has, 
descendre;  —  and  see,  aller 
voir;  —  to  bed,   se  coucher; 

—  (out)  for  a  walk,  aller  se 
promener;  —  for,  — -  after,  — 
and  get,  aller  chercher;  — 
back,  retourner;  —  home, 
aUer  chez  soi,  rentrer;  — 
on,  passer,  continuer  (a);  — - 
to  sleep,  s'endormir;  —  to 
France,  aller  en  France. 

God,  Dieu,  m. 

gold,    or,  m.;    adj.   (  =  of  gold), 

d'or,  en  or. 
good,  bon,  brave,  sage. 
good,  bien,  m.;  do  — ,  faire  du 

bien. 
gossip,  bavarder. 
govern,  gouverner,  regir. 
government,  gouvernement,  m. 
gown,  robe,  /. 
grammar,  grammaire,  /. 
grandson,  petit-fils,  m. 
great,    grand,    gros;    —    deal, 

beaucoup. 
greediness,  avidrte,  /. 
green,  vert. 
grow,  croitre;  devenir;  —  larger, 

grandir. 
guide,  guide,  m. 
guide,  conduire. 
guilty,  coupable. 


248 


VOCABULARY 


hair,     cheveu,     m.,     poil,     m., 

cheveux,  m.  pi. 
half,  demi,  m.,  moitie,  /.;  —  an 

hour,  line  demi-heure,  /. 
half,  adv.,  a  demi. 
half-open,  entr'ouvert. 
hand,  main,  /. ;  on  the  right  — , 

a   droit  e;    on    the    left   —    a 

gauche;  —  over  — ,  avec  les 

mains. 
hand,  remettre. 
handsome,  beau,  bel,  belle, 
handwriting,  ecriture,  /. 
hang,  suspendre. 
happen,  arriver;  venir  a. 
happiness,   bonheur,   m.,   bonne 

fortune,  felieite,  /. 
happy,  heureux,  content. 
hard,  ferine,  dur,  penible,  difficile, 
hate,  hair,  detester. 
hatred,  haine,  /. 
have,    avoir;    obtenir;    —    {as 

auxiliary),  avoir,  etre;  —  just, 

venir  de;  —  to,  etre  oblige  de, 

devoir,    falloir;    —    him    go, 

faites-le  partir. 
he,  il,  lui;  ce;  —  who,  celui  qui; 

—  himself,  lui-meme. 
head,  tele,  /. 

headquarters,  commandature,  /. 
health,  sante,  /. 
hear,  entendre, 
heavy,  lourd. 
help,  secours,  m. 
hen,  poule,  /. 
Henry,  Henri,  m. 
her,  adj.,  son,  sa,  ses;  lui  .  .  .  le; 

h  elle. 
her,  -pers.  pron.,  la,  elle;  to  — , 

lui,  a  elle;  —  own,  le  sien,  a 

elle. 
here,  ici,  y;  —  is,  —  are,  voici. 


heroically,  heroiquement. 

heroine,  heroine,  /. 

hers,  le  sien,  a  elle. 

herself,  se,  elle-meme. 

high,  haut. 

him,  le,  lui;  to  — ,  for  — ,  lui,  ^ 

lui;  —  who,  celui  qui. 
himself,  se,  soi,  lui,  lui-meme;  to 

— ,  en  lui-meme;  he  — ,  lui- 
meme. 
his,  adj.,  son,  sa,  ses;  lui  .  .  .  le; 

a  lui. 
his,  pron.,  le  sien,  a  lui;  —  own, 

le  sien. 
history,  histoire,  /. 
hold,  tenir;  —  out,  tendre,  en- 

durer,  tenii-  (bon). 
holy,  saint,  benit. 
home,    maison,    /.,    patrie,    /.; 

(at)   — ,   chez  moi,   chez  toi, 

etc.,  a  la  maison. 
honest,  honnete. 
honor,  honneur,  m. 
honor,  honorer. 
hope,  esperance,  /.,  espoir,  m. 
hope,  esperer. 
horrible,  horrible,  affreux. 
horror,  horreur,  /. 
horse,  cheval,  m. 
hot,   chaud;  in  the  —  sun,   en 

plein  soleil. 
hotel,  hotel,  m. 
hour,  heure,  /. 
house,  maison,  /. ;  at  (to)  our  — , 

chez   nous;   in   the   — ,    a   la 

maison,  dans  la  maison. 
how,    comment,    comme,    coin- 

bien;  —  many,  — ■  much,  com- 

bien;    —    many!    —    much! 

combien  (de)!  que  de! 
however,    cependant;    —   good, 

quelque    bon    que;    — •    little, 

pour  poll  que;  —  that  may  be, 

quoi  qu'il  en  soit. 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


249 


humanity,  humanite,  /. 

humiliate,  humilier. 

hundred;  a  (one)  — ,  cent. 

hunger,  faim,  /. 

hungry;  be  (feel)  — ;  avoir  faim. 

hiurah  for!  vive(nt)! 

hurry,  se  depecher;  be  in  a  — ; 

etre  presse. 
husband,  mari,  m. 


I 

I,  je,  moi. 

idea,  idee,  /. 

if,  si. 

ill  himior,  mauvaise  humeur,  /. 

impassable,   impassable,  infran- 

chissable. 
impatience,  impatience,  /. 
impoUte,  impoli. 
importance,  importance,  /. 
in,  dans,  a,  en,  de,  sur,  entre;  — 

it,   y;  be  — ,   y  etre;  —  the 

evening,  le  soir;  —  the  west,  a 

I'ouest;  —  the  reign  of,  sous. 
incident,  incident,  m. 
inclined;    be    —    to,     etre    en 

humeur  de. 
industry,  Industrie,  /. 
inflict,  infliger,  imposer. 
inherit,  heriter  de,  succeder  a. 
ink,  encre,  /. 
ink-well,  encrier,  m. 
inn,  auberge,  /. 
insolvency;    go    into     — ,    faire 

banqueroute,  /. 
inspection,  inspection,  /. 
inspire,  inspirer;  —  in,  inspirer  a. 
intelUgence,  intelligence,  /. 
intelligent,  intelligent, 
into,    dans,    en;    —    it,    y,    la 

dedans. 
introduce,  presenter,  introduire. 
invade,  envahir. 


invasion,  invasion,  /. 

invite,  inviter. 

island,  lie,  /. 

it,  il,  elle,  ce;  le,  la;  cela;  in  — ,  y, 
dedans;  of  — ,  for  — -,  en;  to 
— ,  y;  —  is  you,  c'est  vous;  — 
is  they,  ce  sont  eux;  think  of 
— ,  y  penser. 

Italy,  Italie,  /. 

its,  son,  sa,  ses;  en  .  .  .  le. 

itself,  se,  soi;  lui-meme;  meme. 

ivory,  ivoire,  m. 


Jane,  Jeanne,  /. 

John,  Jean,  m. 

join,  tr.,  joindre;  intr.,  se  joindre. 

journey,    voyage,    vi.;    pleasant 

— !  bon  voyage! 
joy,  joie,  /. 

June-bug,  hanneton,  m. 
just,  adj.,  juste,  precis, 
just,   adv.,   justement,   done;  to 

have  — ,  venir  de,  ne  faire  que 

de;  —  then,  a  ce  moment;  — 

as,  au  moment  ou. 
justice,  justice,  /. 


E 

keep,  garder,  tenir;  —  on,  aller 

en. 
key,  cle  or  clef,  /. 
kill,  tuer,  faire  mourir. 
king,  roi,  vi. 
kingdom,   royaume,  m.;  United 

Kingdom,  Royaume-Uni. 
knight,  chevalier,  m. 
knock,  frapper. 
know,  savoir,  cormaitre;  —  how, 

savoir. 
knowledge,    science,   /.,    savoir, 

m.,  connaissances,  /.  pi. 


250 


VOCABULARY 


labor,  travail,  m. 

labor,  travailler. 

lack,  manquer. 

lady,  dame,  /.;  yoxmg  — ,  de- 
moiselle, /.;  jeune  dame,  /. 

land,  terre,  /. 

land,  dcbarquer. 

language,  langue,  /. 

large,  grand,  gros;  grow  — , 
grandir. 

last,  dernier,  passe;  —  evening, 
hier  (au)  soir;  —  night,  cette 
nuit;  —  year,  I'annee  der- 
niere;  at  — ,  enfin,  a  la  fin. 

last,  durer. 

late,  tard,  en  retard;  be  —  for, 
manquer;  later  on,  plus  tard; 
it  is  getting  — ,  il  se  fait  tard. 

latter;  the  — ,  celui-ci. 

laugh,  rire;  —  at,  rire  de,  se 
moquer  de. 

law,  loi,  /. 

lead,  mener,  conduire. 

leaf,  feuille,  /. 

lean,  tr.,  appuyer;  intr.,  s'ap- 
puyer. 

leap,  bond,  m. 

learn,  apprendre,  savoir. 

learned,  instruit. 

least;  the  — ,  adj.,  le  moindre. 

least;  the  — ,  adv.,  le  moins. 

leave,  tr.,  quitter,  laisser;  intr., 
partir. 

left,  gauche. 

leg,  jambe,  /. 

length,  longueur,  /. ;  at  — ,  beau- 
coup,  longuement;  at  full  — , 
tout  au  long. 

less,  adj.,  moindre. 

less,  adv.,  moins. 

lesson,  legon,  /. 

let,  laisser,  permettre;  —  us  go, 


allons;  —  him  finish,  qu'il 
finisse;   —   in,  laisser  entrer; 

—  go,  lacher. 
letter,  lettre,  /. 
liberty,  liberte,  /. 
library,  bibliotheque,  /. 

lie  {=  s peak  falsely) ,  mentir. 

lie;  —  down,  se  coucher. 

life,  vie,  /.;  —  convict,  forgat  a 
vie. 

lift,  lever,  soulever,  Clever, 
eriger. 

like,  comme. 

like,  aimer;  desirer,  vouloir;  — 
better,  aimer  mieux;  —  to, 
aimer  a. 

listen;  —  (to),  ecouter. 

httle,  adj.,  petit;  — ,  adv.,  peu; 
a  — ,  un  peu  (de);  however 
— ,  pour  peu  que;  a  —  while 
ago,  il  y  a  quelques  moments, 
tout  a  I'heure;  —  by  — ,  peu 
a  peu;  —  one,  petit,  m. 

live,  demeurer,  vivre;  —  in, 
demeurer    a,    dans,    habiter; 

—  on,  vivre  de;  long  — ! 
vive(nt) ! 

lofty,  haut. 

London,  Londres,  m. 

long,  adj.,  long. 

long,  adv.,  longtemps;  a  —  time,  a 

—  while,  longtemps;  how  — ? 
depuis  quand?;  as  —  as,  tant 
que;  a  —  way  off,  loin. 

longer;  no  — ,  ne  .  .  .  plus. 

look,  regard,  m. 

look;  —  (at),  regard  er;  — 
aroimd,  regard  er  autour;  — 
for,  chercher;  —  out  of  the 
window,  regarder  par  la  fe- 
netre;  —  up,  lever  la  tete;  ~ 
(=appear),  avoir  I'air,  sem- 
bler,  paraitre. 

lord,  seigneur,  m. 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


251 


lose,  perdre;  —  sight  of,  perdre 

de  vue. 
loud,  haut. 
Louisa,  Louise,  /. 
love,  amour,  in.,  affection,  /. 
love,  aimer, 
loveless,  insensible. 
Low  Countries,  Pays-Bas,  m.  pi. 
lung,  poumon,  m. 

M 

magnificent,  magnifique. 

majority,  majorite,  /. 

make,  faire,  rendre;  be  made, 
SB  faire;  —  use  of,  se  servir 
de;  —  up  for,  reparer;  —  a  de- 
cision, prendre  un  parti. 

mamma,  maman,  /. 

man,  homme,  ?«. ;  old — ,  vieillard, 
771.;  young  men,  jeunes  gens. 

manage,  menager,  conduire, 
manier. 

manner,  maniere,  /. 

many ;  very  — ,  a  great  — ,  beau- 
coup  (de),  beaucoup  de  per- 
sonnes;  so  — ,  tant  (de);  —  a, 
tel,  maint;  as  — ,  autant  (de); 
how  — ?  combien  (de)? 

marble,  marbre,  m.;  {for  play- 
ing), bille,  /. 

marry,  marier,  se  marier,  cpouser. 

Mary,  Marie,  /. 

master,  maitre,  m. 


matter;   what  is   the 


quy 


a-t-il?    de  quoi  s'agit-il?;   no 

— ,  that  does  not  t-,   n'im- 

porte. 
may,  pouvoir. 
mayor,  maire,  m. 
me,  me,  moi;  to  — ,  for  — ,  me, 

moi;  for  — ,  pour  moi;  with  — , 

avec  moi. 
mean,  vouloir  dire. 


meanwhile,  cependant. 

measure,  mesurer. 

meet,  se  rcunir,  rencontrer. 

meeting,  assemblee,  /.;  call  a 
— ,  convoquer  une  assemblee. 

melancholy,  melancolique. 

memory,  memoire,  /. 

mend,  tr.,  raccommoder,  re- 
parer, corriger;  intr.,  se  cor- 
riger. 

mention;  don't  —  it,  il  n'y  a  pas 
de  quoi. 

meter,  metre,  m. 

midnight,  minuit,  7n. 

mighty,  puissant,  fort. 

mile,  mille,  m. 

miUtary,  militaire. 

milk,  lait,  m. 

mill,  filature,  /.,  moulin,  m. 

mind;  to  make  up  one's  — , 
prendre  un  parti. 

mine,  le  mien;  a  moi;  a  friend 
of  — ,  un  de  mes  amis. 

minister,  ministre,  m. 

minute,  minute,  /. 

miss,  manquer. 

mistake,  meprise,  /.,  erreur,  /., 
faute,  /. 

mistake  {  =  make  a  — ),  se  trom- 
per. 

mistress,  maitresse,  /. 

model,  exemple,  m. 

moment,  moment,  m. 

money,  argent,  m. 

monk,  moine,  m.,  religieux,  m. 

month,  mois,  m. 

more,  plus  (de),  encore,  davan- 
tage;  I  have  no  — ,  I  have  not 
any  — ,  je  n'en  ai  plus;  — 
money  than,  plus  d'argent  que; 
I  have  some  — ,  j'en  ai  encore; 
no  — ,  ne  .  .  .  plus;  it  is  worth 
— ,  il  vaut  mieux;  —  than  one, 
plus  d'un. 


252 


VOCABULARY 


morning,  matin,  m. ;  good  — ,  bon- 
jour;  in  the  — ,  le  matin. 

morrow,  demain,  lendemain,  m. 

most,  bien,  fort,  tres;  the  — ,  le 
plus;  —  people,  la  plupart 
des  gens. 

mother,  mere,  /. 

mountain,  montagne,  /. 

Mr.,  monsieur,  -m.,  M. 

Mrs.,  madame,  /.,  Mme. 

much,  beaucoup  (de),  bien, 
tres,  grand' chose;  very  — , 
beaucoup;  as  —  as,  autant 
que;  so  — ,  tant,  tellement; 
how  — ?  combien  (de)?;  too 
— ,  trop;  as  — ,  autant  (de). 

mulberry-tree,  miirier,  m. 

must,  falloir,  devoir. 

mustache,  moustache,  /. 

my,  mon,  ma,  mes;  me  (dat.), 
.  .  .  le;  —  own,  le  mien,  a 
moi. 


N 


name,  nom,  ??i. 

name,  appeler;  be  named,  s'ap- 

peler;    what    is    the    —    of? 

comment  s'appelle? 
nap,  sieste,  /.,  somme,  ni. 
Napoleon,  Napoleon,  rn. 
national,  national. 
nature,  nature,  /. 
necessary,    necessaire;     be     — , 

etre  necessaire,  falloir. 
need,  besoin,  m. 
need,  falloir,  avoir  besoin  de. 
neighbor,  voisin,  m.,  voisine,  /. 
neither,  ni  I'un  ni  I'autre  .  .  .  ne; 

—  ...  nor,  (ne  .  .  .)  ni  .  .  .  ni. 
nest,  nld,  m. 
never,  ne  .  .  .  jamais, 
new,  nouveau,  neuf. 
news,  nouvelle(s),  /. 


New-year's-day,  le  jour  de  Tan. 

next,  adj.,  prochain,  premier;  — 

year,    I'annee   prochaine;   the 

—  day,  le  lendemain;  —  time, 
la  prochaine  fois. 

next,  adv.,  apres,  ensuite. 
night,  nuit,  /. ;  last  — ,  hier  soir, 

cette  nuit. 
ninety,  quatre-vingt-dix. 
no,    non,    pas   de,   ne  .  .  .  pas, 

aucun;  —  man,  —  one,  per- 

sonne,   —    longer,    —    more, 

ne  .  .  .  plus. 
nobility,  noblesse,  /. 
noble,  noble,  m. 
nobody,  (ne  .  .  .)  personne. 
nod,  signe  de  tete,  m. 
none,   pas,    nul;   I  have  — ,   je 

n'en  ai  pas;  there  are  — ,  il 

n'y  en  a  pas. 
noon,  midi,  m. 
nor,  ni,  et  ne  .  .  .  pas. 
Norman,  normand. 
Normandy,  Normandie,  /. 
northern,  septentrional,  du  nord. 
not,    ne  .  .  .  pas    (point),   non; 

—  that,  non  (pas)  que;  —  one 
(ne  .  .  .)  pas  un;  —  at  all, 
pas  du  tout. 

nothing,    (ne  .  .  .)    rien;   —  at 

all,  rien  du  tout;  do  —  but, 

ne  faire  que. 
novel,  roman,  m. 
now,     main  tenant,     a     present, 

deja,  tiens!;  —  and  then,  de 

temps  en  temps. 
numerous,  nombreux. 
nut,  noisette,  /.,  noix,  /. 


oak,  ch^ne,  m. 

obediently,  avec  ob^issance. 

obey,  ob6ir  (k). 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


253 


observe,  observer,  remarquer. 
occxir,  se  trouver. 
o'clock,  heure(s),  /. 
odious,  odieux,  detestable. 
of,  de;  —  it,  —  them,  en,  y. 
often,    souvent;    how   — ,    com- 

bien  de  fois. 
oh!  oh! 
old,  age,  vieux;  (=for))icr),  an- 

cien;    —    man,   vieillard,   m.; 

how  —  is  he?  quel  age  a-t-il? 
on,  sur,  a,  de,  en. 
once,  une  fois,  autrefois;  at  — , 

tout  de  suite,  aussitot. 
one,  7ium.,  un,  une. 
one,     indef.     pron.,     on,     vous 

(obj.);  no  — ,    (ne  .  .  .)   per- 

sonne;     the     white     — s,     les 

blancs;  a  small  — ,  un  petit; 

the  —  who,  celui  qui. 
only,    ne  .  .  .  que,    seulement; 

not    — ,    non    seulement;    — 

(one),  seul. 
open,  ouvert;  wide  — ,  grand  (e) 

ouvert(e) ;  half  — ,  entr'ouvert. 
open,  ouvrir;  s'ouvrir,  eclore. 
opinion,  opinion,  /. 
or,  ou;   (after  sans)  ni;  no  .  .  . 

— ,  ne  .  .  .  ni  .  .  .  ni. 
orange,  orange,  /. 
oration,  oraison,  /. 
order,  ordre,  m.;  in  —  to,  pour, 

afin  de;  in  —  that,  pour  que, 

afin  que. 
order  {  =  give  orders),  ordonner; 

(  =  send  for),  faire  venir. 
other,  autre;  — s,  d'autres,  au- 

trui ;  write  to  each,  — ,  s'ecrire. 
otherwise,  autrement. 
ought,  devoir;  he  —  to  do  it,  il 

devrait  le  faire;  he  —  to  have 

done  it,  il  aurait  dii  le  faire. 
our,    notre,   nos;   at  —  house, 

chez  nous. 


ours,  le  notre. 

ourselves,  nous,  nous-memes. 
out;  come  — ,  go  — ,  sortir. 
owe,  devoir. 

own,  propre;  my  — ,  le  mien;  of 
his  — ,  a  lui. 


page,  page,  m. 

palace,  palais,  m. 

pale,  pale. 

panorama,  panorama,  m. 

pansy,  pensee,  /. 

papa,  papa,  m. 

paper,  papier,  m.;  (  =  newspaper) 
feuille,  /.,  journal,  m. 

parent,  parent,  m. 

Paris,  Paris,  m. ;  in  — ,  a  Paris. 

participle,  participe,  m. 

pass  i  =  go  past),  passer  (devant, 
pres  de);  —  through,  tra- 
verser; as  he  — ed,  au  passage, 
en  passant. 

passage,  passage,  m. 

past,  passe,  m. 

past,  adj.,  passe;  at  half  —  one, 
a  une  heure  et  demie. 

path,  sentier,  m. 

patience,  patience,  /. 

patiently,  avec  patience,  patiem- 
ment. 

pay  {  =  pay  for),  payer; —  atten- 
tion, faire  attention. 

pear-tree,  poirier,  m. 

peasant,  paysan,  m. 

pen,  plume,  /. 

pencil,  crayon,  m. 

people,  peuple,  m.,  on,  gens,  m. 
or  /.,  monde,  in.,  personnes,  /. 
pL;  few  — -,  peu  de  gens; 
most  — ,  la  plupart  des  gens; 
other  — ,  les  autres,  autrui. 

perfect,  parfait. 


254 


VOCABULARY 


perfectly,  parfaitement. 

perhaps,  peut-etre. 

permit,  permettre  (a). 

person,  personne,  /. 

Peter,  Pierre,  m. 

Philip,  Philippe,  ?«. 

pick,  cueillir;  —  out,  choisir;  — 

up,  ramasser. 
pictiu-e,  tableau,  m.,  peinture,  /. 
piece,  morceau,  m. 
pigeon,  pigeon,  m. 
pink,  ccillet,  m. 
pipe,  siffler. 
pity,  plaindre. 
place,     endroit,     m.,     lieu,     vi., 

place,  /.;  take  — ,  avoir  lieu. 
place,  mettre,  placer, 
plainly,      franchement,      claire- 

ment. 
plant,  plante,  /. 
plant,  planter. 
play,  jouer;  —  at  {games),  jouer 

a;  —  on  {instruments),  ]o\iqv  de. 
pleasant,   agreable,  aimable;  — 

journey!  bon  voyage! 
please,  plaire  a;  iif  you  — ,  s'il 

vous  plait;  as  we  — ,  comma 

il  nous  plaira. 
plunge,  plonger,  (s')enf oncer. 
poet,  poete,  m. 
point,  point,  vi.,  pointe,  /.;  the 

—  is,  il  s'agit  de. 
Poitiers,  Poitiers,  m. 
poor,  pauvre,  mauvais. 
portion,  part,  /. 
possess,  posseder. 
possible,  possible. 
post-office,  poste,  /. 
poimd,  livre,  /. 
pound,  taper. 
power,    puissance,    /.,  pouvoir, 

m. 
powerful,  puissant,  fort. 
powerless,  impuissant. 


praise,  louer. 

pray,  adv.,  done. 

prefer,  preferer. 

prepare,  preparer. 

presence,  presence,  /. ;  in  the  — 
of,  devant;  into  his  — ,  aupres 
de  lui. 

present,  cadeau,  m.;  person  — , 
assistant,  m. 

present,  present;  at  — ,  a  present; 
be  —  at,  etre  present  a, 
assister  a. 

press,  presse,  /. 

pretty,  adj.,  joli. 

pretty,  adv.,  assez. 

prevent,  empecher. 

pride,  orgueil,  to. 

primer,  abecedaire,  m. 

prince,  prince,  to. 

prison,  prison,  /. 

prisoner,  prisonnier,  m. 

privilege,  privilege,  m. 

probably,  probablement.    ' 

prompt,  prompt,  exact. 

property,  bien,  m. 

proud,  tier,  orgueilleux. 

provide  {for),  pourvoir  a;  {loith), 
fournir  a. 

province,  province,  /. 

provincial,  provincial,  de  pro- 
vince. 

Prussia,  Prusse,  /. 

Prussian,  Prussien,  to. 

Prussian,  prussien. 

pull,  tirer,  haler,  hisser. 

punish,  punir. 

punishment,  punition,  /. 

pupil,  eleve,  to.,  /. 

put,  mettre,  attacker;  —  on 
{clothing),  mettre;  —  out 
{fire),  eteindre;  —  out  {of 
doors),  mettre  a  la  porte;  — 
to  death,  mettre  a  mort;  — 
off,  remettre. 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


255 


quality,  qualite,  /. 

quarter,    quart,    m.;    —    of    an 

hour,  quart  d'heure. 
question,  question,  /.;  ask  a  — , 

faire  une  question. 
quickly,  vite. 
quiet,  tranquille. 
quite,  tout,  tout  a  fait. 


racket,  tapage,  m. 

rain,  pluie,  /. 

rain,  pleuvoir. 

rank,  rang,  m. 

rare,  rare. 

reach,    arriver    a  or   chez,    at- 

teindre,  gagner. 
read,  lire, 
ready,  pret. 
receive,  recevoir. 
recite,  reciter. 
reckon,  calculer,  compter, 
recognize,  reconnaitre. 
recover,  recouvrer,  se  remettre. 
red,  rouge, 
refuse,  refuser, 
regret,  regret,  m. 
regret,  regretter. 
reign,  regno,  to. 
reign,  regner. 
remain,  rester. 
remember,    se   souvenir   de,    se 

rappeler,  retenir. 
repeat,  repeter. 
reply,  reponse,  /. 
reply,  repondre. 
represent,  representor. 
reproach,  reproche,  m. 
reproach,  reprocher. 
resist,  resister  a. 
respect,  respect,  to. 
respect,  respecter. 


rest,  se  reposer. 

retrace,  retracer,  revenir  sur;  — 
his  steps,  revenir  sur  ses  pas. 
retreat,  retraite,  /. 
return,  retourner,  revenir,  rendre. 
revolt,  revolte,  /.,  soulevement, 

TO. 

revolt,  se  revolter,  se  rebeller. 

reward,  recompense,  /. 

reward,  recompenser. 

rich,  riche. 

rigging,  greement,  m. 

right,  droit,  ?n.;  be  (in  the)  — , 

avoir    raison;    all    — !    a    la 

bonne  heure! 
right,  droit;  on  the  —  hand,  to 

the  — ,  a  (la)  droite. 
rise  (up),  se  lever,  se  dresser. 
road,  route,  /.,  chemin,  m. 
rock,  roc,  m.,  roche, /.,  rocher,  to. 
Roman,  Romain,  to. 
room,  chambre,  /.,  salle,  /. 
rope,  corde,  /. 
rose,  rose,  /. 
rose-bush,  rosier,  to. 
round,  rond. 
royal,  royal. 
ruin,  ruine,  /. 
ruin,  ruiner,  detruire. 
rule,  regie,  /. 
ruler,  regie,  /. 
run,  courir;  — •  away,  se  sauver; 

—  over,   parcourir;  —  after, 

courir  apri'S. 
Russia,  Russie,  /. 
Russian,  Russe,  to.,  /. 
Russian,  russe. 
rustic,  rustique. 


sad,  triste. 

sailor,  marin,  to.,  matelot,  to. 

Saint  Helena,  Sainte-Helene,  /. 


256 


VOCABULARY 


same,  meme. 

satisfy,  satisfaire. 

save,  sauver,  conserver;  (money), 

epargner. 
saw-mill,  scierie,  /. 
say,  dire;  it  is  said,  on  dit;  —  to 

each  other,  —  to  oneself,  se 

dire;  —  again,  redire. 
scaffold,  echafaud,  m. 
scarcely,  a  peine. 
school,  ecole,  /.;  at  or  to  — ,  k 

Fecole. 
scold,  gronder. 
scornful,  dedaigneux. 
scream,  crier. 
seat,  banc,  m. 
second,  seconde,  /. 
see,  voir;  —  again,  revoir. 
seek,  chercher. 
seem,  sembler,  paraltre. 
seize,  saisir. 
sell,  vendre. 
senate,  senat,  m. 
send,  envoy er;  —  for,  envoyer 

chercher,   faire  appeler,   faire 

venir. 
sentence,  sentence,  /.,  plirase,  /. 
separate,  separer,  se  separer. 
serious,  serieux,  grave, 
sermon,  sermon,  m. 
serve,  servir. 
set  out,  partir. 
seven,  sept. 
seventeen,  dix-sept. 
several,  plusieurs  (invariable). 
shade,  ombre,  /. 
shaggy,  herisse,  ebouriffc. 
shame,    honte,   /.;   it   is    a   — , 

c'est  honteux. 
shameful,  honteux. 
share,  part,  /. 
sharp,  aigu,  vif. 
sharpen,  tailler,  aiguiser. 
she,  elle,  ce. 


shining,  brillant. 

shoe,  Soulier,  m. 

shout,  crier. 

show,  spectacle,  to. 

show,    montrer,    faire    voir;    — 

itself,     se     montrer;     —    in, 

faire  entrer. 
shut,  fermer. 
side,  coti,  TO. 
siege,  siege,  m. 
sign,  signe,  to. 
silence,  silence,  m. 
silent,    muet,   silencieux;   be   o? 

become  — ,  se  taire. 
silk,  soie,  /. 

silk-worm,  ver  a  soie,  to. 
silver,  argent,  ??t. 
silver,  d'argent,  en  argent. 
since,  prep.,  depuis. 
since,  co?ij.,  depuis  que,  puisque. 

que. 
sing,  chanter, 
single,  seul. 
sir,  monsieur,  ?n. 
sister,  soeur,  /. 
sit  (down),  s'asseoir. 
skate,  patiner;  go  — ing,  (aller^ 

patiner. 
slave,  esclave,  m.,  f. 
slavery;  to  fall  into  — ,  tombei 

esclave. 
sleep,    dormir;   go   to   — ,    s'en- 

dormir. 
slide,  glissade,  /. 
slight,  leger. 
slip,  glisser. 
slowly,  lentement. 
small,  petit. 
smell,  sentir. 
smile,  sourire. 
snarl,    brouiller;    get   — ed    up 

s'embrouiller. 
snow,  neige,  /. 
snow,  neiger. 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


257 


snow-cap,  houppette  de  neige,  /. 

so,    si,    ainsi,    par    consequent, 

aussi,  c'est  pourquoi;  —  many, 

—  much,  tant  (de),  telle- 
ment;  not  —  ...  as,  ne 
.  .  .  pas  si  .  .  .  que;  I  think 
— ,  je  le  crois;  I  am  — ,  je  le 
suis;  —  as  to,  afin  de,  de  ma- 
niere  a;  —  that,  afin  que,  de 
sorte  que;  —  well,  si  bien,  tant. 

softly,  doueement,  moUement. 
soldier,     soldat,     m.,    militaire, 

m. 
solemn,  solennel,  grave. 
some,  adj.,  du,  de  la,  des;  quel- 

que(s);  for  —  time,  pendant 

quelque  temps. 
some,     pron.,     en,     quelqu'un, 

quelques-uns;    —    of    it,    en; 

I  have  — ,  j'en  ai. 
somebody,  quelqu'un,  on. 
someone,  quelqu'un,  on. 
something,  quelque  chose,  m. 
sometimes,  quelquefois. 
son,  fils,  m. 
soon,  bientot;  as  —  as,  aussitot 

que. 
sorry,  fache,  desole;  be  —  (for), 

regretter. 
sort,   sorte,  /.,  espece,  /.;  what 

—  of  weather?  quel  temps? 
Spain,  Espagne,  /. 

speak,  parler;  French  is  spoken, 

on   parle  fran^ais;   so   to  — , 

pour  ainsi  dire, 
spectacles,  lunettes,  /. 
speech,  parole,  /. 
spell,  epeler. 
spend  (money),  depenser,  (time), 

passer. 
spring,    printemps,    m.;    in    — , 

au  printemps. 
square  (of  a  city),  place,  /. 
stake,  enjeu;  jalon,  ?«.;  be  at  — , 


y  aller  de,  s'agir  de;  my  life  is 
at  — ,  il  y  va  de  ma  vie. 

stand,  etre  debout,  rester  debout. 

start  {  =  svl  out),  partir. 

state,  etat,  m. 

station-master,  chef  de  gare,  m. 

stay,  rester,  s'arreter. 

steep,  montueux,  raide. 

step,  pas,  ??i. ;  take  a  — ,  faire  uu 
pas. 

stem,  severe. 

stick,  baguette,  /.,  baton,  m. 

still,  adj.,  calme,  tranquille. 

still,  adv.,  encore,  toujours. 

stool,  escabeau,  m. 

stop,  tr.,  arreter,  boucher;  intr. 
s'arreter. 

story,  histoire,  /.,  conte,  m. 

street,  rue,  /. 

strength,  force,  /. 

stretch,  (s')etendre. 

strong,  solide. 

strongly,  fortement. 

studious,  studieux. 

study,  etude,  /. 

study,  etudier. 

stupid,  bete,  stupide. 

succeed,  succeder  a,  reussir. 

such,  tel;  —  a,  un  tel. 

suffer,  souffrir. 

sugar,  Sucre,  ?n. 

sultan,  sultan,  m. 

sum,  somme,  /. 

summer,  ete,  to. 

sun,  soleil,  to. 

Sunday,  dimanche,  to. 

support,  appuyer,  soutenir;  — 
oneself,  s' appuyer,  se  sou- 
tenir. 

suppress,  supprimer,  reprimer, 
etouffer. 

surprise,  surprendre,  etonner. 

surprised,  surpris,  etonn6. 

surrender,  (se)  rendre. 


258 


VOCABULARY 


sway,  balancer. 

sweet,    doux;    smell    — ,    sentir 

bon. 
swiftly,  vite. 
swim,  nager. 
swing,    balancer;  —   back   and 

forth,  aller  et  venir. 
Swiss,  Suisse;  —  girl,  Suissesse,/. 
Switzerland,  Suisse,  /. 


table,  table,  /. 

take,  prendre,  porter,  emporter, 
mener,     emmener,     conduire; 

—  off,  oter;  — •  in,  envelopper. 
talent,  talent,  m. 

talk,  parler. 

tall,  grand,  haut. 

task,  tache,  /.,  affaire,  /. 

tax,  imput,  m.,  taxe,  /. 

tea,  the,  ?m. 

teach,  enseigner,  apprendre. 

teacher,  professeur,  m.,  maitre,  m. 

tell,  raconter,  dire,  annoncer. 

temple,  temple,  w. 

ten,  dix. 

tennis,  jeu  de  paume,  m. 

terrible,  terrible. 

territory,  territoire,  m. 

than,  que,  {before  numerals)  de. 

that,  dem.  adj.,  ce,    cet,    cette; 

ce  .  .  .  -la. 
that,  dem.  pron.,  ce,  cela,  celui; 

—  is,  voila,  c'est. 

that,  rel.  pron.,  qui,  que,  lequel. 

that,  conj.,  que. 

the,  le,  la,  les. 

their,  leur,  leurs. 

theirs,  le  leur. 

them,    les,    leur,    eux,    elles;    of 

— ,  d'eux,   en;  to  — ,  a  eux, 

leur,  y. 
themselves,  se,  eux,  eux-memes. 


then,  alors,  ensuite,  puis. 
there,  la,  y;  —  is,  —  are,  voila, 

il  y  a;  —  it  is,  le  (la)  voila. 
these,  adj.,  ces;  ces  .  .  .  -ci. 
these,   pron.,   ceux,    ceux-ci;   — 

are,  ce  sont,  voici. 
they,  ils,  elles,  on,  ce;  there  —  are, 

les  voila;  it  is  — ,  ce  sont  eux. 
thing,  chose,  /.,  affaire,  /.,  objet, 

m. 
think,  penser,  croire,  songer. 
third,  troisieme,  trois. 
thirsty;   be  — ,   avoir   soif;   be 

very     — ,     avoir     bien     soif, 

mourir  de  soif. 
this,  adj.,  ce,  cet,  cette;  ce  .  .  .  -ci. 
this,    pron.,   ce,    ceci,   celui(-ci); 

—  one,  celui-ci. 
those,  adj.,  ces,  ces  .  .  .  -la. 
those,  pron.,  ceux(-la);  —  who, 

ceux  qui;  —  are,  voila. 
thou,  tu,  toi. 

thought,  pensce,  /.,  idee,  /. 
thoughtful,  reflechi,  pensif. 
thousand,  mille,  mil. 
three,  trois. 
through,     par,     a    travers,     au 

travers  de. 
throw,  Jeter. 
tie,  attacher. 

till,  prep.,  jusqu'a,  avant. 
till,  conj.,  jusqu'a  ce  que,  que. 
time,    temps,    m.,   fois,  /.,    mo- 
ment, m.;  at  — s,  quelquefois. 
tire,  fatiguer,  ennuyer;  be  or  get 

tired,  s'ennuyer,  se  fatiguer. 
to,  a,  chez,  de,  pour,  en,  jusqu'a, 

envers,  vers. 
to-day,  aujourd'hui. 
together,  ensemble. 
to-morrow,    demain;    day    after 

— ,  apres-demain. 
tongue,    langue,  /.;  hold   one's 

— ,  se  taire. 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


259 


too,   aussi,   trop;  —  much,   — 

many,  trop. 
top,   sommet,   ?n.;   spimiing  — , 

toupie,  /. 
topman,  gabier,  m. 
toward,  vers. 
town,  ville,  /.;  in  — ,  down  — , 

en  ville;  to  — ,  a  la  ville. 
town-hall,    mairie,  /.,    hotel    de 

ville,  m. 
trace,  tracer. 
trade,  metier,  m. 
trade-guild,  corporation,  /. 
tragedy,  tragedie,  /. 
train  (railroad),  train,  m. 
translate,  traduire. 
traveler,  voyageur,  m. . 
tree,  arbre,  m. 
tremble,  trembler, 
triumph,  triomphe,  m. 
troops,  troupes,  /.  pi. 
trot  (along),  trottiner. 
trout,  truite,  /. 
true,  vrai,  fidele. 
trumpet,  trompette,  /. 
truth,  verite,  /. 
try,  essayer. 

turn,  tour,  m.;  in  — ,  a  tour, 
turn,  tourner. 
twelve,     douze;     —     (o'clock), 

midi,  771.,  minuit,  ?n. 
twenty,  vingt. 
twenty-four,  vingt-quatre. 
twice,  deux  fois. 
twinkling,  clin  d'oeil,  m. 
twist,  tourner. 
two,  deux. 


ugly,  laid,  vilain. 
tmibrella,  parapluie,  m. 
imcle,  oncle,  m. 
under,  sous,  au-dessous  de. 


understand,  comprendre. 
undiscipUned,  indiscipline, 
unfortunate,  malheureux. 
imhappy,  malheureux. 
United    States,    Etats-Unis,    m. 

pi.;  in  the  — ,  aux  Etats-Unis. 
unJmown,  inconnu. 
unless,  a  moins  que  .  .  .   (ne). 
until,  prep.,  jasqu'a. 
until,    co/ij.,    jusqu'a     ce     que, 

que. 
up,  en  haut;  come  — ,  monter; 

get  — ,  se  lever;  —  to,  jusqu'a. 
upon,  sur. 
uproar,  train,  m. 
upset,  bouleverser. 
urchin,  gamin,  m. 
us,  nous. 
use,  usage,  to.;  be  of  some  — , 

etre  de  quelque  utilite;  have 

—  for,  avoir  besoin  de;  make 

—  of,  se  servir  de,  employer. 
dse,  se  servir  de,  employer, 
useless,  inutile;  be  — ,  ne  valoir 

rien. 
usually,    d'ordinaire,    ordinaire- 

ment,  usuellement. 
utter,  pousser,  prononcer. 


vanquish,  vaincre. 

verb,  verbe,  to. 

very,  tres,  bien,  fort;  — •  much, 
beaucoup,  bien,  tres;  that  — 
evening,  le  soir  meme. 

vex,  vexer,  irriter,  agacer. 

victor,  vainqueur,  to. 

victory,  victoire,  /. 

village,  village,  /7i. 

violet,  violette,  /. 

voice,  voix,  /. 

vote,  voix,  /.,  suffrage,  to. 

voter,  votant,  ?n. 


260 


VOCABULARY 


W 

wait,  wait  for,  attendre. 

walk,  promenade,  /. ;  go  for  a  — , 

take  a  — ,  (aller)  se  promener, 

faire  une  promenade. 
walk,  marcher,  se  promener;  — 

in,  entrer. 
wall,  mur,  m. 
walnut-tree,  noyer,  m. 
want,   avoir  besoin  de,   desirer, 

vouloir;  I  — ,  il  me  faut. 
war,  guerre,  /.;  make  — ,  faire 

la  guerre. 
warm,   chaud;   be  —   {of  living 

beings),   avoir    chaud;    be  — 

(of  weather),  faire  chaud. 
warn,  prevenir. 
waste,  tr.,  perdre,  dissiper,  pro- 

diguer;  inlr.,  deperir,  s'epuiser. 
watch,  montre,  /. 
watch,  contempler,  regarder;  — 

for,  guetter. 
water,  eau,  /. 
way,  route,  /.,  chemin,  m.;  ma- 

niere, /.,  moyen,  m.;  on  the  — , 

en  route;  by  the  — -,  a  propos; 

a  long  —  off,  bien  loin. 
we,  nous,  on. 
weakness,  faiblesse,  /. 
wear,  porter. 

weariness,  lassitude,/., fatigue,/. 
weather,   temps,  mi.;  the  —  is 

warm,  il  fait  chaud. 
week,    semaine,  /.,    huit   jours, 

VI.  pi. 
weigh,  peser. 
welcome,  accueiUir;  be  — ,  etre 

le  bienvenu. 
well,  bien,  tres;  so  — ,  si  bien; 

very  — ,  tres  bien;  be  — ,  se 

porter   bien;    do   — ,    faire    le 

bien;    as   —   as,    aussi    bien 

que;  well!  eh  bien! 


wet,  humide. 

what,  adj.,  quel;  —  time  is  it? 

quelle  heure  est^il? 
what,  proJi.,  que,  quoi,   ce   qui, 

ce  que,   ce  a  quoi,   ce  dont, 

qu'est-ce  que?  qu'est-ce  qui? 

qu'est-ce    que    c'est   que?    ce 

que  c'est  que;  —  is  up  now? 

qu'est-ce  qu'il  y  a  encore? 
whatever,    tout    ce    qui    (que), 

quoi     que,    quel    que,     quel- 

conque. 
when,  quand,  lorsque,  que. 
whenever,  quand,  lorsque. 
where,  ou;  from  — ,  d'ou. 
which,  adj.,  quel. 
which,   pron.,   qui,   que,   lequel; 

of  — ,  dont,  duqu,el;  at  — ,  ou, 

auquel;  in  — ,  ou,  dans  lequel; 

from  — ,  dont,  du'quel. 
while,  prep.,  en. 
while,  conj.,  pendant  que,  tandis 

que,  tant  que. 
while ;  a  long  — ,  longtemps. 
white,  blanc. 
who,  qui,  quel,  lequel. 
whoever,    qui    que,    quiconque, 

qui  que  ce  soit. 
whole,  tout,  entier;  the  —  eve- 
ning, toute  la  soiree;  the   — 

year,  toute  I'annee. 
whom,   qui,  que,  lequel;  of  — , 

dont,  de  qui,  duquel. 
whose,    a    qui,    de    qui,    dont, 

duquel;    at    —    house,    chez 

qui. 
why,  pourquoi. 
wicked,  mechant. 
wide,  large;  —  open,  grand (e) 

ouvert(e). 
will,  volonte,  /. 
win,  gagner,  remporter. 
window,  fenetre,  /.;  out  of  the 

— ,  par  la  fenetre. 


ENGLISH-FRENCH 


261 


wine,  vm,  m. 

wipe,  essuyer. 

wisdom,  sagesse,  /. 

wish,  desir,  m. 

wish,    desirer,    souhaiter,    vou- 

loir. 
with,  avec,  chez,  a,  de,  envers, 

par;    go    or    he    — ,    accom- 

pagiier. 
without,    prep.,    sans;   —   ... 

and,  —   ...  or,   sans   .   .   . 

ni;  do  — ,  se  passer  de. 
without,    conj.,    sans    que    {with 

suhj.). 
woman,  femme,  /. 
^wonder,  se  demander,  s'etonner. 
wonderful,     merveilleux,     eton- 

nant. 
wood,  bois  m. 
word,  mot,  m.,  parole,  /.;  send 

— ,  faire  savoir. 
work,  travail,  m.,  ouvrage,  m., 

ceuvre,  m.  or  f. 
work,  travailler. 
world,  monde,  m. 
worth;    be    — ,    valoir;   —   the 

trouble,   —   while,   valoir   la 

peine. 


worthy,  digne. 

would  {past  tense  of  will);  —  to 

God!  pliit  a  Dieu! 
wretch,  miserable,  m. 
write,  ecrire;  — ■  to  each  other, 

s'ecrire. 
writing,  ecriture,  /. 
wrong,  mal,  tn.;  be  (in  the)  — , 

avoir  tort. 


yard  {of  a  ship),  vergue,  /. 
year,  annee,  /.,  an,  m.;  last  — , 

I'annee  derniere,  I'annee  passee. 
yelping,  jappement,  //;. 
yes,  oui,  si. 
yesterday,  hier. 
yet,  encore,  cependant;  not  — , 

pas  encore. 
yield,  ceder. 
yonder,  la-bas. 
you,  vous,  tu,  te,  toi. 
young,  jeune. 

youngster,  jeune  homme,  m. 
your,  votre,  vos,  ton,  ta,  tes. 
yours,  le  votre,  le  tien;  a  vous, 

k  toi. 


INDEX 


All  numbers  refer  to  sections. 


A,  202-206,  219-221. 

abbreviations,  232. 

accents,  4.    See  also  stress. 

adjectives,  feminine,  21-25,  128, 
129;  plurals,  26-28,  31;  pos- 
sessives,  32;  demonstratives, 
30,  31,  67,  69;  indefinites, 
84-89;  invariable,  130,  131; 
agreement,  132;  comparison, 
133;  superlative,  135;  posi- 
tion, 138;  numeral,  139,  140; 
with  a,  205;  with  de,  212. 

adverbs,  187-201,  229. 

age,  145. 

agreement  of  verb,  153-155. 

aller,  56,  101,  182,  218. 

alphabet,  2;  phonetic,  18. 

apposition,  136. 

apres,  with  infinitive,  109. 

article,  19,  29,  34,  136,  137. 

au,  29;  prefix,  199. 

autre,  88,  89. 

autrui,  89. 

auxiliary  verb,  90,  92. 

avant,  207;  avant  que,  1976,  2  ; 
227. 

avec,  208. 

avoir,  36,  i;  90-92,  145,  146,  184. 

beaucoup,  27,  197. 
bel,  25. 

bien,  133,  137,  2/. 
bien  que,  222. 
bon,  133. 
bouger,  196. 


g,  cedilla,  48. 

ca,  67. 

capitals,  144. 

cardinal  numbers,  139. 

ce,  29-31,  67,  147. 

ceci,  67. 

cedilla,  48. 

cela,  67. 

celui,  68-71. 

cent(s),  139. 

-cer  verbs,  48. 

cesser,  196a. 

cet,  25. 

chacun,  87. 

chaque,  87. 

Chez,  209. 

-ci,  69. 

ciel,  28. 

circumflex.  4. 

close  vowel,  4,  45. 

collectives,  153. 

collocation,  63,  64. 

comme,  229,  231. 

comment,  231. 

comparison,  133-135,  191. 

complement     of     verbs,     157- 

162. 
composite  subject,  153-155. 
compound    tenses,    90-92,   102- 

105. 
conditional,   114,   116,   165-168, 

173-175. 
conjunctions,  222-228. 
consonants,  final,  13,  16. 
craindre,  1976,  1. 


263 


264 


INDEX 


d  in  liaison,  17. 

dans,  210,  219. 

dates,  144. 

davantage,  200. 

de,  36,  37,  146,  176,  191,  211- 

216,  219-221. 
definite  article,    19,  27,  29,  37, 

135-137. 
demi,  130,  142. 
demonstratives,  67-71. 
depuis,  103. 
depuis  que,  196,  226. 
des,  29. 
deixxieme,  140. 
devant,  207. 
devoir,  168,  186. 
dieresis,  12. 
dimensions,  146. 
disjunctives,  53,  56,  57. 
dont,  75. 
du,  29. 

e  mute,  9,  46. 

-eler  verbs,  46. 

elision,  24. 

elle,  19,  55. 

-ement,  189. 

empecher,  1976,  2. 

en,   preposition.   111,   202,   210, 

219,  220. 
en,  pronoun,  61,  65,  150. 
encore,  89. 
envers,  217. 
-eter  verbs,  46. 
etre,  92. 

-eur,  feminine  of,  128. 
eviter,  1976,  2. 

f  in  liaison,  17. 

faire,  157-159,  180a,  c,  183. 

falloir,  180a,  186,  1976,  2. 

fol,  25. 

fractions,  142. 


fraiche-cueillie,  131. 

future,  98-101,  163,  164,  166. 

future  anterior,  102,  103. 

g   in   liaison,    17;    becomes   ge, 

48. 
gender,  19,  126-128. 
generic  noun,  137,  2o. 
gens,  gender,  126,  7. 
gerund,  110. 
glide,  vowel,  7. 
government  of  verbs,  156. 
grande  ouverte,  131. 

h  aspirate,  16. 
hiatus,  25. 
however,  171. 

a,  19,  55,  147. 

a  y  a,  103,  184,  185. 

imperative,  50,  58,  169,  170. 

imperfect  indicative,  94,  95,  103, 
116,  173. 

imperfect  subjunctive,  122. 

impersonal  verbs,  181-186. 

indefinite  nouns,  33,  34. 

indefinite  adjectives  and  pro- 
nouns, 84-89. 

indicative.  Chap.  II;  Chap.  IV; 
118. 

indirect  discourse,  115. 

indirect  object,  56. 

infinitive,  38,  108,  109,  168, 
176-178;  with  a,  204-206; 
with  de,  214-216;  with  pour, 
218. 

interrogation,  51-53. 

interrogative  adjectives,  73. 

interrogative  pronouns,  81-83. 

invariable  adjective,  130,  139. 

inversion,  151,  152. 

jumeau,  129. 


INDEX 


265 


laisser,  157. 
la  plupart,  137,  2/,  153. 
le,  19,  62,  148,  149. 
lequel,  73-78. 
liaison,  17. 
lip-rounding,  5. 
lorsque,  224. 
I'un  I'autre,  88. 

mauvais,  133. 
meilleur,  mievix,  133. 
-ment,  188. 
moindre,  moins,  133. 
moins  de,  191. 
mol,  25. 
monsieur,  194. 
motion,  verbs  with  a,  56. 
muscle  tension,  6. 
mute  e,  9,  46. 

narrow  vowels,  6. 

ne,  54,  134,  196-198,  223. 

ne  .  .  .  que,  201. 

negation,  54,  192,  19fr-198. 

ni,  223. 

non,  192,  194. 

nouns,  definite,  19;  indefinite  and 

partitive,  33-35;  gender,  126- 

128;  numerals,  141. 
nu,  130. 
numerals,  139-146. 

objective  pronouns,  55-58,  63, 

64. 
ceil,  28. 
oi,  11. 
on,  85. 
07ily,  201. 
open  vowel,  4,  45. 
or  translated  by  ni,  223. 
ordinals,  140. 
oser,  196a. 
oui,  192,  194. 


par,  211,  219. 

participles,  91,  92,  110-113, 
179,  180. 

partitives,  33-37. 

parts  of  speech,  1. 

pas,  198;  pas  de,  36,  2. 

passive  verb,  60,  85,  105-107, 
211. 

past  anterior,  104. 

past  definite,  96,  97. 

past  indefinite,  90,  173. 

past  participle,  91,  92,  110,  161, 
180. 

pendant  que,  225. 

penser  a,  56,  202. 

personal  pronouns,  55-64. 

petit,  peu,  133. 

phonetic  alphabet,  18. 

pire,  pis,  133. 

pleonastic  ne,  197. 

plupart,  137,  2/,  153. 

pluperfect  indicative,  102-104; 
subjunctive,  122,  125. 

plurals,  26-28,  31,  130. 

plus,  149,  191. 

position,  of  pronouns,  63-65; 
170;  of  adverbs,  187.  See 
also  word-order  and  inver- 
sion. 

possession,  etre  a,  205. 

possessives,  32,  66. 

pour,  218,  219. 

pouvoir,  161,  168,  196a. 

prepositional  phrases,  221. 

prepositions,  202-221. 

present  indicative,  41-49,  lOO- 
103. 

present      participle,      111-113, 

179. 
primitive  tenses,  38,  39. 
pronouns,  personal,  55-57;  posi- 
tion, 58,  63-65;  reflexive,  59; 
possessive,  66;  demonstrative, 
67-71;  relative,  72-80;  inter- 


266 


INDEX 


rogative,     81-83;     indefinite, 

84-89. 
pronunciation,  3-18. 
proper  nouns,  130, 136,  137,  2C. 
pu,  161. 
puisque,  226. 

quand,  224;  quand  meme,  1656. 
que,  pronoun,  73,  80. 
que,  conjunction,  133,  228. 
que,  adverb,  229. 
quel,  73;  quel  que,  171. 
quelque,  86;  quelque  .  .  .  que, 

171. 
qui,  73,  81,  83;  qui  que,  171. 
quoique,  222;  quoi  que,  171. 

reflexive  pronoun,  59,  159;  verb, 

59,  60,  89,  91,  92,  i. 
relative  clauses,  171,  172. 
relative  pronoun,  72-80. 
repetition  of  preposition,  220. 

s  in  liaison,  17. 

sans  que,  222. 

savoir,  168,  196a. 

se,  59. 

second,  140. 

sequence  of  tenses,  120-122. 

seulement,  201. 

si,  adverb,  192;  si  .  .  .  que, 
171;  conjunction,  21,  100, 
125. 

simple  tenses  for  continuing  ac- 
tion, 104. 

soi,  89. 

sounds,  2-18. 

sous,  219. 

strengthening  vowel,  45,  46,  99. 

stress,  5,  14,  45,  46. 

stressed  personal  pronoun,  65, 
57. 

subjunctive,  117,  118;  present, 
120,    121;  imperfect,    122;  as 


imperative,  123,  124;  pluper- 
fect, 125;  uses,  171-175;  with 
conjunction,  222. 

superlatives,  135. 

sur,  146,  219. 

syllabication,  12. 

-t-  in  inversion,  53. 

tandis  que,  225. 

tant,  199. 

tel,  89. 

-teur,  feminine,  128,  2. 

time,  143. 

titles,  137,  2c;  144. 

tout,  89,  131. 

tout  .  .  .  que,  171,  172. 

trema,  12. 

tu,  55. 

u,  pronunciation,  8. 
un,  88,  139. 

valoir,  160,  1806. 

venir,  218,  219. 

verbs,  principal  parts,  38,  39; 
present  indicative,  41^9, 100- 
103;  imperative,  50-58,  169, 
170;  imperfect  indicative,  94, 
95,  103,  116,  173;  past  defi- 
nite, 96,  97;  past  indefinite, 
90,  173;  participles,  91,  92, 
110-113,  179,  180;  future,  98- 
101,  163,  164,  166;  compound 
tenses,  102-104;  agreement, 
153-155;  government,  156; 
complement,  157-162;  con- 
ditional, 114-116,  165-168, 
173-175;  subjunctive,  117- 
125,  171-175,  222;  infinitive, 
108,  109,  168,  176-178,  204- 
206,  214-216,  218;  imper- 
sonals,  181-186. 

vers,  217. 

voUa.  185. 


INDEX 


267 


voir,  158,  160. 
vouloir,  162,  168. 
vowels,  3-11,  15. 

tchat,  67. 
with,  208,  211. 
word-order.  138,  151,  229. 


X  in  liaison,  17;  in  syllabication, 
12. 

y,  between  vowels,  10;  changed 

to  i,  47. 
y,  adverb  and  pronoun,  61. 
-yer  verbs,  47. 


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